While European tourism as a social practice continues to be interrogated in academic circles, it is generally assumed to be a mark of capitalist societies, and yet, it is not that long ago that large expanses of Eastern Europe were ideologically outside of capitalism. To date few researchers have examined the nature of tourism in Eastern European socialist countries. Partly this is a function of limited access to the recent historic pasts of such countries but arguably it also reflects an assumption/belief in the West that tourism was little practised and, if it was, it was wholly directed by the state. This thesis focuses on holiday experiences in socialist countries prior to 1989 and in particular it explores the experiences of East German tourists who travelled to other socialist countries between 1971 and 1989. The emphasis is upon the role that these holidays played, both for the tourists and for the government of the German Democratic Republic (GDR). This study is framed by an understanding that tourist experiences are not only subject to wider historical developments, such as the Cold War and the dictatorial socialist regime of the GDR, but also contribute to such developments and historical processes. The thesis is situated in the interface of three major debates. The first relates to how the experiences of former East Germans citizens can contribute to the historical knowledge about the GDR. The second relates to the recording and meaning of 'experience' in the context of understanding tourism. And third, it relates to the wider debate on the influence of experience, as an epistemological concept, in historical writing. The experiences of East German tourists are approached through oral history interviews with thirteen individuals who formerly lived in the GDR and spent holidays in other socialist countries before 1989. In addition to the recollections of tourist experiences, the thesis examined archival documents (files from the GDR secret police, various GDR state institutions concerned with tourism, guidebooks and tourism brochures etc.), to gain a deeper understanding as to how personal experiences related to the discourses and political measures controlling tourism and consumption during and after the existence of the GDR. The approach to these different sources stems from the "history of everyday life" ("Alltagsgeschichte"), and it is shown that in order to gain an understanding of a historical process, the relationship between narrative, memory, experience and practice needs to be considered. This analysis revealed both 'ordinary' touristic practices and narratives amongst GDR citizens as well as politicised experience. It is shown that through tourists' comparing the East and the West, East German tourists made sense of what they encountered during their holidays in relation to former experiences and longings. The notion of escape reflects such a longing. It is argued that the focus of an analysis of tourists' wishes to escapes should lie with the tourists' efforts to attain escape. These efforts constituted an important dynamic in the GDR history.

This study presents a new perspective on British photography through an examination of the manufacturing and retailing of photographic equipment and sensitised materials between 1839 and 1914. This is contextualised around the demand for photography from studio photographers, amateurs and the snapshotter. It notes that an understanding of the photographic image cannot be achieved without this as it directly affected how, why and by whom photographs were made. Individual chapters examine how the manufacturing and retailing of photographic goods was initiated by philosophical instrument makers, opticians and chemists from 1839 to the early 1850s; the growth of specialised photographic manufacturers and retailers; and the dramatic expansion in their number in response to the demands of a mass market for photography from the late1870s. The research discusses the role of technological change within photography and the size of the market. It identifies the late 1880s to early 1900s as the key period when new methods of marketing and retailing photographic goods were introduced to target growing numbers of snapshotters. Particular attention is paid to the role of Kodak in Britain from 1885 as a manufacturer and retailer. A substantial body of newly discovered data is presented in a chronological narrative. In the absence of any substantive prior work this thesis adopts an empirical approach firmly rooted in the photographic periodicals and primary sources of the period. Wider literature from the history of retailing, manufacturing and Victorian studies supports it. The study concludes that three key periods, the early 1850s, the 1870s and the 1890s, were when substantive changes to photographic technology each released a latent demand for photography initially from the commercial portrait photographer and then, respectively, from the amateur and the snapshotter. This was met and enhanced by new manufacturing, retailing and marketing methods within photography underpinned by wider economic, social and economic changes.

This thesis examines the development of cultural heritage tourism in Malaysia, and questions if this tourism development has been managed in a sustainable manner. Recent national tourism policies in Malaysia increasingly have been aimed towards promoting cultural heritage tourism, signifying that cultural heritage tourism could be potentially one of the most important areas in the growth of the country’s tourism industry. While tourism development has contributed to the country’s economic growth, for cultural heritage, the thrust of the tourism industry is to make the most of the country’s non-renewable resources. This thesis identifies three key objectives required for creating sustainable tourism development in Malaysia: meeting the needs of local communities, satisfying the demands of a growing number of tourists, and safeguarding the remaining natural and cultural resources. Knowledge leading to improvements in the development of cultural heritage tourism is important, as knowledge is a primary means of strengthening its positive aspects and simultaneously mitigating its negative aspects, so that development can maintain a long-term viability. This study also explores some of the key management issues relating to the development of cultural heritage tourism at both Federal and State levels. A broad understanding is necessary for providing a firm basis in prescribing a thorough and realistic sustainable development framework. The study employs questionnaires, surveys, and interviews with a range of government officials, local communities, and tourists. The findings indicate that the government has played a major role in shaping the development of sustainable cultural heritage tourism in Malaysia, but at present there are many shortcomings that need to be addressed, such as definitions of the term Cultural Heritage, as well as management issues, including conflicts and bureaucratic barriers. These problems, consequently, hinder a comprehensive management of cultural heritage tourism. Additional findings indicate that local communities are not actively involved in tourism planning or decision-making processes, though they generally are satisfied with development at the locations of this study. The study also calls for higher quality tourist services, and the promotion of other elements of cultural heritage to compliment the already established yet limited elements. Finally, it suggests a Sustainable Cultural Heritage Tourism Framework, incorporating social and cultural elements. This thesis contributes new knowledge to the field of cultural heritage tourism in Malaysia and may serve as a starting point for researchers interested in this area. Furthermore, the results of this study are expected to be useful for guiding policy actions in the future.

This thesis critically examines the current characteristics of the tourism industry in Peru. By taking the case of the coastal district of Mancora, Northern Peru, this study explores processes of place-making occurring in a context of neoliberal reform, whereby territories highly vulnerable to the ‘El Niño’ phenomenon are developed into tourist attractions. The approach of this thesis is interdisciplinary, using multi-sited ethnography and Critical Discourse Analysis as key instruments. The interpretative framework relies on anthropological theory about the nature and society interface; studies about socio-economic development, sustainable tourism and neoliberalism; debates concerning the socio-cultural elaboration of space, place, and identity in post-colonial societies; as well as literature on natural disasters. By portraying tourism as an efficient tool for economic growth, businessmen and national elites are seeking to transform the identity of Northern Peru into an ‘attractive’ tourist destination. Whilst this is expected to develop rural populations and the nation, the overwhelming enthusiasm triggered by tourism revenues has widely neglected the socio-cultural and environmental impacts this industry generates and, more importantly, the cyclical exposure of this region to the ‘El Niño’ phenomenon. Recent occurrences of this natural event provoked millions of dollars worth of damage, severely hitting the economic development of the country. In a context of global warming, this thesis analyses how tourism and neoliberalism provoke changes in the concepts used to relate to the natural environment and place in post-colonial societies, thus increasing socio-cultural differences, raising conditions of vulnerability and threatening the identities of rural populations. In particular, this multi-sited ethnography explores the process of place-making that developed the former fishing village of Mancora into a tourist destination and the socio-environmental problems prompted within this environmentally fragile territory. This is complemented with a critical analysis of the discourses that support tourism growth and an exploration of the role of the Peruvian state in governing the tourism industry and the use of natural resources. Ultimately, this thesis questions the current role of the tourism industry in developing Peruvian society and reflects on whether the current model of tourism development is increasing conditions of vulnerability of rural populations.

The 1980s and 1990s have witnessed growing state intervention at a European, national and local level aimed at influencing the behaviour of tourism and hospitality organisations. In addition, there have been an increasing number of measures designed to support the development of small businesses in various sectors of the economy. The purpose and rationale for such interventions have, almost invariably, been implied rather than explicit. Nevertheless, careful reading of official documentation reveals a concern to improve `competitiveness' or the `business performance' of enterprises. This, in turn, reflects the broader aim of securing greater income and jobs in particular - sometimes local - economies. My research interest has been to understand how such interventions impact upon the tourism and hospitality sectors, with particular reference to small enterprises. This synthesis draws together the main strands of the research work that I have undertaken over the past decade. It begins with a discussion of methods and methodology and an outline of the wider research context within which my work is located. This is followed by a brief examination of the, often neglected, case for treating small tourism and hospitality firms separately for both academic and policy purposes. The remainder of the discussion centres on a critical assessment of two broad policy areas: deregulation, and business information and support. By drawing on the work reported in the submitted papers it is argued that official conceptualisation of small business behaviour in the tourism and hospitality sectors is, at best, partial and, at worst, misconceived and inconsistent. The synthesis seeks to do more than provide a summary of the research reported in the submitted papers. It represents an attempt to demonstrate linkages between the selected work and to show how the papers collectively add to knowledge and understanding of state intervention intended to support small business development in the tourism and hospitality sectors.

This thesis details the macro-level, micro-level and nano-level investigation of factors affecting the acceptance, adoption and diffusion of online betting technologies in the UK market. The research is positioned to explore the usage of these technologies, pertinent drivers and inhibitors, and key factors influencing bettor behaviour. Given the rapid development of key emergent technologies, the current knowledge base is theoretically and contextually deficient in the understanding of how and why these technologies are accepted, adopted and diffuse. Built upon the Social Construction of Technology philosophy, technological and social factors are explored. Consequently, key theoretical components are drawn upon; behavioural intention concepts of Technology Acceptance and Innovation Diffusion. Methodologically, a three-phase, sequential, mixed methods approach is taken. The challenges of researching this hidden population are addressed through sampling and distribution conducted purely online; contributing to the internet research field . Initial quantitative scoping is conducted through an online survey instrument. Qualitative exploration and explanation of emerging themes is conducted though semi-structured email interviews. Operating at the nano-Ievel, a novel e-projectives technique provides further exploration and explanation of salient themes. The e-projectives instrument furthers social sciences research theory as this innovative technique is translated and applied in a digital context. Through confirmation, disconfirmation and extension of knowledge, theoretical and contextual contributions are made to the key areas of; online consumer behaviour, e-commerce and Information Systems. Knowledge is added in the area of consumer behaviour and e-commerce through exploration of online bettor behaviours and the accepted digital delivery of betting services. Online bettors are found to utilise numerous technologies to provide a 'grand solution' with online betting services enhancing the speed, ease and control of betting. Primary drivers identified are; ease of use, ease of contact, reliability and safety. Trust and assurances are primary inhibitors. Operational advantage, Proficiency Development and Service Performance are key influences in online bettor behaviour. Philosophically, SCOT is supported through the identified interplay between social and technological factors. IS theory is advanced with support for the amalgamation of technology acceptance and innovation diffusion theories, and addition of contextual aspects. Finally, a number of practical recommendations are forwarded for key stakeholders.

Despite the shift towards more market-oriented economic strategies, there is a continuing need for state policy to play the role of a nurturer of high technology industries in many countries. This is especially true of the information technology (IT) industry, characterised by rapid technological change, necessity of economies of scale, research inputs, and the constant upgrading of skills. This thesis examines the impact of state policy liberalisation and globalisation on India's IT firms, and the means by which they are responding to policy changes in the 1990s. India' s IT industry has experienced a variety of policy interventions, from protectionism in the 1970s and early 1980s to liberalisation of the economy in the 1990s, thus providing a rich area for research. The study investigates the impact of policy change on both computer hardware and software components of the Indian IT industry by analysing the legacy of past policies as well as changes in firm-level strategies in the 1990s. Liberalisation and globalisation are now being upheld by policy makers as the sole determinants of international competitiveness for the Indian IT industry in the nineties. However. the impact of liberalisation and globalisation may be both positive and negative; they provide a pathway to continuous technological upgrading, but at the same time threaten the survival of indigenous IT firms and their technological capabilities, built on the basis of import substitution. This thesis argues that liberalisation implies a continuing link between government and industry, and that it needs to go hand-in-hand with interventionist measures. The state has a continuing role to play in fostering the IT industry and creating the conditions for international competitiveness, even under liberalised economic conditions. Although Indian IT firms are shown to be adapting to the new policy environment, the industry's future can be better secured by a renewed policy emphasis on developing the domestic industry and market, accompanied by a push for IT consumption as against mere production and export.

This thesis provides a comprehensive assessment of the reasons for the differences in hospital utilisation. The research starts with a quantitative analysis of the reasons for the differences in the length of stay and inpatient costs for elective surgery. Both these topics are central to efficiency and value for money in the hospital sector. Subsequently, a qualitative component is introduced involving a questionnaire answered by surgeons. A comprehensive statistical model is developed by using 1991 data from a number of hospitals in Spain. The model includes a large set of control variables: health status indicators, hospitalization-related variables, hospital and doctors characteristics and regional supply. Using a large data set, the analysis confirms many hypotheses concerning the reasons for the variations in the length of stay and inpatient costs. Longer stays were estimated for a) patients with more severe Diagnoses Related Groups; b) comorbidity or multiple diagnoses; c) complications after the operation; d) patients over 65 year old; e) admitted through the emergency room or referred by the Internal Medicine Department; f) admitted to hospital on a Friday or a Saturday and discharged on a Monday; g) living in an area with a relative large supply of surgeons, beds per specialty and resident surgeons. In contrast, patients who were admitted to a hospital with a high turnover rate, a high percentage of operations and a high number of total hospital beds experience shorter lengths of stay. Higher costs were estimated for patients with a) longer lengths of stay; b) longer operating theatre minutes; c) admitted through the emergency room; d) and in areas with a high number of surgeons. In contrast, hospitals with a high number of beds per specialty and a high number of total hospital beds experience lower hospital costs.

The public sector of all western developed countries has become increasingly involved in financing health care during the past century. Today, thirteen OECD countries have passed landmark legislative reforms that call for compulsory prepayment and universal entitlement to comprehensive services, while most of the others achieve similar coverage through a mixture of public and private voluntary arrangements. This study carried out a detailed analysis of why, how and to what effect governments became involved in health care financing in eight of these countries. During the early phase of this evolution, reliance on direct out-of-pocket payment and an unregulated market mechanism for the financing, production and delivery of health care led to many unsatisfactory outcomes in the allocation of scarce resources, redistribution of the financial burden of illness and stabilisation of health care activities. This forced the state to intervene through regulations, subsidies and direct provision of services. Expansion in prepayment of health care gradually occurred through private insurance, social insurance and general revenues in response to different socio-economic, political and bureaucratic forces. Although improving health may have been the ultimate goal, offering universal access to affordable health care was the way the countries examined achieved this objective. Universal comprehensive coverage was associated with a decade of stable public expenditure on health care compared with GDP, total government expenditure and government consumption expenditure. There were no disproportionate increases in health care expenditure or displacement of public funds away from social programmes that depended on cash transfer payments. Nor do the countries that offer such social protection have higher public debt or poorer economic performance compared with the rest of the OECD. Measures of health status are unfortunately still not sufficiently developed or standardised to permit a detailed analysis of this aspect of outcome through cross-national comparisons. Furthermore, the countries examined may be more vulnerable to political backlash because of the high visibility of their government involvement in health care financing.

Ethical entrepreneurship and by extension wider best practice are noble goals for the future of tourism. However, questions arise which concepts, such as values motivations, actions and challenges underpin these goals. This thesis seeks to answers these questions and in so doing develop an applied ethics analysis for best practice entrepreneurs in tourism. The research is situated in sustainable tourism, which is ethically very complex and has thus far been dominated by the economic, social and environmental triple bottom line thinking. This research takes a different approach by applying a value-behavioural lens to best practice entrepreneurship. In so doing, the focus shifts from impacts and consequences towards those values and actions that determine best practice entrepreneurship. The originality of the research is grounded in a two-pronged research strategy, combining archival research and methods from Personal Construct Theory through the process of iteration. Both strategies are currently underused in tourism research. This constitutes an important methodological contribution. Furthermore, a unique set of archival data in the form of Tourism for Tomorrow Awards applications and judges’ reports enhances the originality of the findings. Archival data was complemented by semi-structured interviews with so-called ethical tourism entrepreneurs. A mix of source and method triangulation has added significant rigour to this research. The key findings are that best practice in tourism is ethically very complex, which suggests a form of ethical pragmatism. Second, a dissonance exists between motivations for best practice, which are value-pluralistic, and ethical judgement making, which is more principle-based. Third, a further dissonance was identified between admittance/awareness and action for issues of misrepresentation, whereas no dissonance was found for relationship or distribution dilemmas. This thesis has combined three strands of research: business ethics, entrepreneurship and sustainable tourism. This original approach lays ground for change towards a more ethically-bound entrepreneurial practice in tourism.