Introducción Las personas mayores constituyen el segmento de la sociedad que está creciendo más rápidamente en todo el mundo. Aunque el maltrato a las personas mayores no es un fenómeno nuevo, ha conseguido captar el interés de nuestra sociedad y, específicamente, de los profesionales recientemente. En los últimos años se ha ido avanzando en la definición de malos tratos a personas mayores, en su clasificación y en el análisis de sus consecuencias, pero todavía se informan y se detectan pocos casos. No parece existir una conciencia profunda del problema ni en la sociedad ni entre los profesionales, por lo que no existen mecanismos rutinarios de detección y mucho menos de prevención adecuados. Objetivos Objetivo principal Analizar la percepción del maltrato a las personas mayores, así como, los conocimientos, posición de los profesionales ante el maltrato y las limitaciones que presentan para su identificación y denuncia. Todo esto, con el fin de evaluar la situación actual del problema en nuestro entorno y poder establecer intervenciones futuras. Objetivos secundarios Conocer la percepción del maltrato al anciano que tienen profesionales sanitarios, trabajadores sociales y la población general. Evaluar los conocimientos y actitudes de los profesionales sanitarios y trabajadores sociales hacia el maltrato a personas mayores. Identificar barreras para informar casos de maltrato a personas mayores que presentan los profesionales sanitarios y trabajadores sociales, con el fin de lograr una mejor compresión de los problemas de detección y notificación. Material y método Estudio observacional descriptivo y prospectivo. La muestra final fue de 642 individuos, de los que 376 eran población general, 161 profesionales sanitarios y 105 trabajadores sociales. Analizamos la percepción del maltrato a las personas mayores de los tres grupos con The Caregiving Scenario Questionnaire. Las actitudes y conocimientos de los profesionales sobre el maltrato a las personas mayores así como las barreras para la detección y notificación fueron recogidos. Variables relacionadas con el contacto a nivel personal y profesional con personas mayores y con demencia de los tres grupos del estudio y variables relacionadas con la formación sobre malos tratos a personas mayores de los profesionales sanitarios fueron analizadas. Resultados El 84,4% de los profesionales valoró de forma negativa la formación recibida sobre malos tratos a las personas mayores, sólo el 9,3% señaló que la formación recibida le preparaba lo suficiente para actuar en casos de maltrato a personas mayores. El porcentaje de profesionales sanitarios que calificó de forma correcta las estrategias categorizadas como maltrato fue significativamente superior al de la población general, no encontrando diferencias significativas entre profesionales sanitarios y trabajadores sociales. Los profesionales del estudio no están completamente familiarizados con las directrices legales y protocolos de maltrato a personas mayores en España. La negativa de la persona maltratada a denunciar el maltrato fue la principal razón de los profesionales sanitarios y trabajadores sociales para no informar casos sospechosos de maltrato (54,7% y 58,1% respectivamente). Los profesionales sanitarios, en mayor medida que los trabajadores sociales presentan barreras para la notificación relacionadas con la falta de conocimiento sobre el abordaje del maltrato, la legislación y la propia definición. Sin embargo, los trabajadores sociales muestran más preocupación por razones relacionadas con la autonomía del paciente, la confidencialidad médico-paciente, la calidad de vida, y las futuras relaciones profesional-paciente. Conclusiones Consideramos un objetivo prioritario capacitar a los profesionales mediante una formación específica. La prevención es un objetivo clave en el maltrato al anciano por lo que sensibilizar a la sociedad debe ser una estrategia prioritaria para humanizar y promover el buen trato en la atención a personas mayores. / Introduction Elderly people constitute the segment of society that is growing faster around the world. Although elder abuse is not a new phenomenon, it has recently got to attract our society’s interest and more specifically, the interest of health professionals. In the last years, great progress has been made in the definition of what constitute elder abuse, both about its classification and its consequences’ analysis, but a few cases are still be informed and detected. It doesn’t seem to exist a deep awareness of the problem behind, neither among the society nor among the health professionals; consequently, adequate routine detection methods don’t exist, and least of all, prevision ones Objectives Main objective Analysing elderly abuse perception, also health professionals’ knowledge and their position on it, and finally, the barriers they present for its identification and its denunciation. Given the above, they have all been carrying out in order to evaluate the current situation of the problem in our surroundings, and consequently, being able to set future interventions. Secondary objectives Being aware of the elderly abuse’ perception that health professional, social workers and general population have. Evaluating health professionals and social workers knowledge and attitudes about elderly abuse. Identifying barriers to elderly abuse reporting, presented by health professionals and social workers, in order to achieve a better understanding of the detection and notification problems. Methods Observational, descriptive and prospective study. The final sample consisted of 642 individuals, of which 376 were general population, 161 of them were health professionals and 105 social workers. We analyse the elderly abuse’s perception across the three groups with The Caregiving Scenario Questionnaire. Health professionals’ attitudes and knowledge about elderly abuse, as well as barriers to the detection and reporting of it were collected. Variables related to personal and professional contact established by people from the three study groups with elderly people and suffering from dementia, as well as variables related to training on elderly abuse, were also analysed. Results 84.4% of professionals assessed the training received on elderly abuse negatively, and only 9.3% said that their training prepared them sufficiently to act in cases of elder abuse. The percentage of health professionals that was able to describe correctly the strategies categorized as abuse was significantly higher than in the case of the general population, with no significant differences between health professionals and social workers. Professionals who have taken part in the studio are not fully familiar with the legal guidelines and protocols for elder abuse in Spain. The refusal of the person abused to report the case of abuse was the main reason given by health professionals and social workers for failing to report suspected abuse cases (54.7% and 58.1% respectively). Health professionals in a greater extent than social workers, present barriers to the notification of elder abuse, which are related to the lack of knowledge in addressing abuse, and the lack of understanding of the legislation and even its own definition. However, social workers are more concerned about reasons related to the patient’s autonomy, the doctor-patient confidentiality, patient’s quality of life and future professional-patient relationships. Conclusion We consider a priority aim to qualify the professionals by means of a specific formation. The prevention is a key aim in the elder abuse for what sensitize the society must be a priority strategy to humanize and to promote the good treatment in the attention to old people.

The protection of the emerging right of conscientious objection to military service is one of the most challenging questions in international human rights law. The primary objective of this doctoral thesis is to clearly identify the minimum international legal standards on the phenomenon of conscientious objection to military service as emerging from the jurisprudence of international human rights bodies. Furthermore, this study aims to explore and assess how the Member States of the Council of Europe are effectively implementing these standards within their domestic laws and practice. The implementation of legal standards on conscientious objection in the Council of Europe varies considerably between the 47 Member States of the organisation due to a rapidly transforming sociopolitical landscape that affects the speed in which legislative and procedural amendments take place. Some of the themes explored throughout this thesis include: the legal contours of the right to conscientious objection to military service, including the grounds legally accepted to justify a conscientious objection; procedural guarantees with regard to the application process to be granted conscientious objectors status; the provision of accurate information to members of the public affected by mandatory military service and the extension of these principles to professional members of the armed forces. The thesis is structured as a thematic presentation of applicable international human rights standards and State practice and explores common issues, best practices and future challenges between the Member States of the organisation. The study does not merely aspire to describe the present situation in the Council of Europe, but rather aims to contribute to academic know ledge by proposing the development of a more coherent framework of legal and procedural obligations, based on the need to review and adapt national legislation in accordance to indicators and benchmarks derived from the Council's standard-setting policies.

La agresividad, y en concreto, la que se manifiesta en forma de violencia contra otro igual se conoce como bullying. Una violencia injustificada, donde impera una claro desequilibrio de poder entre el agresor y la víctima, y mantenida en el tiempo generalmente bajo el código del silencio. Pero cuando esta violencia sobrepasa las paredes de la escuela y utiliza como medio de expresión las nuevas tecnologías, sucede lo que se viene denominando como cyberbullying: acoso entre iguales en la red. Bajo un diseño de investigación cuantitativa no experimental de corte descriptivo, este trabajo se plantea dos objetivos generales: a) analizar el fenómeno del cyberbullying en escolares de Educación Primaria, ESO y Bachillerato; y b) identificar la percepción del profesorado sobre la violencia escolar en sus centros educativos. A partir de un diseño ad hoc del cuestionario “Cyberbull” y el cuestionario de percepción docente se recoge numerosa información sobre la incidencia y características del bullying y cyberbullying en la Región de Murcia. Entre los principales resultados se destaca que alrededor del 9% de la muestra encuestada se autonomina como implicado en bullying y cyberbullying desde el rol de agresores/ciberagresores, víctimas/cibervíctimas y agresores victimizados/ciberagresores victimizados, existiendo solapamiento entre ambas dinámicas de agresión. El acoso social es lo más usual dentro de las tipologías de bullying, mientras que los insultos y difamaciones son más propios en el terreno del cyberbullying. Se utilizan múltiples aplicaciones en el ciberacoso entre las que destacan el WhatsApp, las llamadas y las redes sociales. El análisis de las conductas de uso problemático y adictivo hacia las TIC indica un porcentaje preocupante de estudiantes que se reconocen con estos problemas manifiestos con síntomas de ansiedad, malestar, agresividad y cambio de intereses. Además, se encuentra que el uso problemático de las TIC como el móvil y el ordenador está asociado significativamente a la implicación en bullying y cyberbullying. Sorprendentemente víctimas y agresores confirman que suelen comunicar su implicación en bullying y cyberbullying aunque los porcentajes en el segundo caso son más bajos. El impacto emocional derivado del ciberacoso deja entrever emociones como malestar, tristeza, rechazo e incluso ideación suicida en las cibervíctimas, y malestar, fortaleza y superioridad según los ciberagresores, aunque la peor parte se la llevan los ciberagresores victimizados, y más aun los que participan también del bullying. Pero si hay una forma de combatir el cyberbullying es a través de las estrategias de afrontamiento. A partir de información cualitativa recogida en el cuestionario, los estudiantes recurrirían a: evitar a los desconocidos, denunciar a la policía, ayudar/defender a la víctima y comunicarlo a la familia y amigos, entre las estrategias más señaladas. Respecto al profesorado, los resultados apuntan a que tienden a subestimar la incidencia de bullying y cyberbullying que existe en sus centros educativos, señalando como lo más usual las agresores verbales y físicas por delante del ciberacoso. Confirman que se les comunican poco estas situaciones, y que el cyberbullying se debe principalmente a características del agresor y al desequilibrio de poder entre las partes. Además, se reconocen poco competentes para lidiar con esta problemática, exigiendo de más formación específica que les ayude en este sentido. A lo largo de los resultados encontrados, variables como el sexo, nivel educativo, titularidad del centro o nacionalidad, se muestran influyentes en las experiencias de bullying, cyberbullying y la percepción del problema por parte de los docentes. Finalmente, se discuten los resultados y conclusiones principales de la investigación, haciendo un análisis sobre las principales limitaciones y la propuesta de implicaciones educativas y de investigación futura que podrían ayudar a la lucha contra la extensión del cyberbullying, desde su prevención y tratamiento psicoeducativo. / Aggressiveness, and specially, which appears as violence against peers is known as bullying. An unjustified violence in which prevails the power imbalance between bully and victim, and permanent in time because of code of silence. But when this type of violence goes beyond schoolyard using digital technologies leads to that calling as cyberbullying: online bullying among peers. Using a descriptive non-experimental quantitative design, this research considers two main objectives: i) analyse cyberbullying in primary, secondary and high school students; and ii) identify teachers’ perception about school violence in their schools. Much information about the incidence of bullying and cyberbullying in the Region of Murcia was collected by using “Cyberbull” self-questionnaire and teachers’ perception survey both designed ad hoc. The main results are that around 9% of students are involved in bullying and cyberbullying as bullies/cyberbullies, victims/cybervictims and bully-victims/cyberbullying-victims, with a link between two aggression dynamics. Social bullying is the most common form at school, while denigrations and name-calling are the most common in cyberbullying. For that, students use WhatsApp, voice calling and social networks mainly. We studied the problematic and addictive use of ICT founding that a worrying percentage of students inform they have this problem with symptoms like anxiety, discomfort, aggressiveness and interests change. Besides, there is a significant relationship between bullying, cyberbullying and problematic use of ICT. Surprisingly, victims and bullies inform that they seek help when are involved in bullying and cyberbullying although communicate the involvement in cyberbullying is lower. Emotional impact after cyberbullying shows emotions like discomfort, sadness, exclusion o even suicidal ideation in cybervictims, and discomfort, strength, superiority in cyberbullies. But the worst impact is for cyberbully-victims and those who are involved in bullying too. But if there is a form to deal with cyberbullying is using coping strategies. From the qualitative information in Cyberbull questionnaire, students say that (in case of cyberbullying) they: avoid unknown people in cyberspace, report the experience to the police, help and support the victims and tell to friends and family, as strategies most noted. Regarding the teachers, results show that they tend to underestimate the incidence of bullying and cyberbullying at their schools, saying that the most common violence among peers is verbal and physic bullying over the cyberbullying. They confirm students don’t usually communicate them these experiences, and cyberbullying is motivated by bullies personality and power imbalance. Furthermore, they recognise themselves with little abilities to deal with cyberbullying, and ask for more specific training to help in this situation. Through all results, sex, school level, school partnership or nationality, are significant associated with bullying, cyberbullying and teachers’ perceptions. Finally, results are discussed and conclusions presented, examining the main research limitations and discuss about future educative and research implications that can help to deal with the extension of cyberbullying, from its prevention and psicoeducative treatment.

El propósito de la presente tesis es el análisis y estudio jurídico penal en torno a la estafa mediante obras de arte falsas. El objeto de la investigación, pues, queda circunscrito a la figura básica del delito de estafa y a los preceptos que la complementan recogidos en los artículos 248.1, 249 y 623,4 del Código Penal. El núcleo de la tesis está formado por tres capítulos, en un primero, se realiza un estudio terminológico, necesario para definir un marco introductorio donde se acota el tema: el mercado del arte y el concepto de obra de arte. Su determinación terminológica en este estudio no es meramente instrumental, sino que constituye el eje vertebrador y de enorme y necesario interés, de ahí la extensión de este primer capítulo. A continuación, un segundo capítulo se inicia con un breve análisis de la cuestión en el Derecho comparado, seguido de una nuestra propuesta de un modelo explicativo sólido y coherente, que pueda dar respuesta a los problemas más importantes que determinan en última instancia el fin perseguido en la presente investigación. Pese a las referencias específicas al ordenamiento jurídico español, la mayoría de las afirmaciones aquí sostenidas son extensibles a otros sistemas jurídicos, presupuesto necesario del que parten las premisas básicas del Capítulo III. Este tercer escalón se dedica al estudio del bien jurídico protegido, en el cual se pretende desvelar una cuestión técnica fundamental, cual es aquella que hace referencia a la concreta determinación del interés o valor tutelado por la norma penal; pero también se busca un criterio hermenéutico sólido que determine su naturaleza jurídica, en relación con el engaño y los sujetos intervinientes. Respecto a los sujetos intervinientes, por su repercusión en el mercado, se analiza con profundidad las casas de subastas, con algunos ejemplos muy ejemplificativos. Esto nos ha llevado a estudiar fenómenos fronterizos de responsabilidad con el derecho privado. Por su incidencia en el mercado, también se tratan los negocios jurídicos criminalizados. Analizamos a la víctima de la estafa desde una perspectiva victimológica, observando las especiales características de este tipo de comprador. Además, se exponen unas consideraciones a propósito de un posible carácter pluriofensivo de los delitos de estafa con obras de arte falsas. Finalmente, se aplica la fórmula jurídica a la cuestión examinada intentado que la respuesta sea coherente con el planteamiento teórico inicial y también correcta desde el punto de vista político-criminal. / The aim of this thesis is to analyze the Spanish Criminal Law about the scam involving fake art works. Therefore, the object of the research is limited to the basic concept of the crime of fraud and precepts covered in articles 248.1, 249 and 623.4 of the Spanish Criminal Code. This thesis has been structured in three chapters. In the first stage, which is specified in Chapter I, a terminological study is needed to obtain an introductory framework where the topic is established: the art market and the concept of artwork. A second chapter begins with a brief discussion of this issue in comparative law. Then we try to create a solid and coherent explanatory model that can respond to the most important issues that ultimately determine the objective pursued in this investigation. This is carried out by an interpretation of the different typical terms always guided by the consideration of the object of the offense. Hence, although specific references are related to the Spanish legal system, most of the these statements are extensible sustained to other legal systems, necessary assumption that the basic premises of Chapter III are based on. This third step is devoted to the study of legally protected assets. Here we aim to unveil a major technical issue, which is that which refers to the actual determination of interest or value protected by the criminal law, but also looking for a solid hermeneutical criterion determining their legal status in relation to deception and the parties involved. With respect to the parties involved, and their impact on the market, we analyze in depth the auction houses, with some very exemplary cases. This has led us to study border liability phenomena with private law. For its impact on the market, criminalized legal business is also addressed. We analyze the victim of the scam from a victim perspective, noting the special characteristics of this type of buyer. Some thoughts about possible multiple offenses of the crimes of fraud with fake art works are shown. Finally, the legal formula is applied to the issue considered attempting to offer a response which is consistent with the initial theoretical approach and also correct from the point of view criminal policy.

The emergence of Community Justice Courts (CJC) in the UK is a relatively new approach to doing justice. Founded upon the broad principles of community justice they present a challenge to traditional criminal justice practice. This thesis is based on a qualitative ethnographic study, employing an interpretivist methodology to develop knowledge and understanding of the Plymouth CJC. Furthermore it sought to review three specific areas, firstly the operations of the CJC and whether these processes varied from those of traditional magistrates’ court, secondly the development and operationalisation of problem-solving multi-agency working, and thirdly the identification and implementation of community engagement strategies. Observations of the court and associated meetings were undertaken (29 court sessions, six meetings, two problem-solving meetings) alongside interviews with 11 respondents representing the key stakeholder groups, documentary analysis of all meeting information and available guidance on the court, two small focus groups with Devonport and Stonehouse residents (independently) and self-completion questionnaire data from defence solicitors and offenders, all of which was analysed by constant comparison. Findings suggest that there were only two areas of distinction between the CJC and traditional magistrates’ court, those being court-based problem-solving and increased magistrate interaction. In addition, multi-agency problem-solving was evident but hounded by cultural and political differences in ideology and operations, leading to considerable resistance by court based legal professions. Furthermore, community engagement was found to be in need of considerable attention. Consequently recommendations for change and future research at policy, organisation and practitioner level have been made. The study concludes by suggesting that more time is needed for these courts to prove themselves and further attention could be given to applying the principles to mainstream court processes without the added expense of a specialist model.

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