This research investigated the contribution that women are making to communities through their involvement in small Voluntary and community sector organisations (VCSOs) operating in the South West Region of England. The research explored the roles the women play and what type of involvement they have in the development and delivery of services through small VCSOs. It also considered what motivates the women to become involved and to stay involved in these small groups and how visible and valued that involvement is. The research utilised a feminist approach with mixed methods to provide a space for the voices of the women involved to be heard and over 200 women from small ‘Below the Radar’ (BTR) VCSOs took part including over 180 by completing scoping questionnaires, thirty-two in two focus groups and twelve who took part in semi-structured interviews. The study found the context and circumstances in which small VCSOs operate contained factors, which have either encouraged or discouraged the involvement of women in their communities, including issues related to women’s current position in society. The commitment, passion and desire to carry out work, which would benefit the whole community, were among the key reasons the women undertook the work, rather than financial reward or status. The work of the women involved in the research was also found to contribute to stocks of social capital in those communities. The research analysed the degree to which recent governments have sought to utilise the VCS to assist with the delivery of their own agendas. The research suggests that women’s involvement within the smaller BTR VCSOs could be conceptualised in a framework called the ‘Women Alchemists’ and that the use of the term ‘Women Led Organisations’ could more fully build on the contribution of women and to nurture it in a way which enables it to grow and be sustained without altering its nature.

The main purpose of present study is to apply the social identity theory and concepts to internal marketing, moral identity and moral emotions research in order to empirically test a conceptual model of voluntary participation in the charity context of England. The conceptual model integrated individual and organizational level antecedents (moral identity and moral emotions, and internal marketing), mediating processes (empathy, gratitude and identity salience) and relationship outcomes (participation and turnover intentions). At its core, the study examined empirically the multiple facets of social identity theory, such as the cognitive-affective relationships of moral identity and moral emotions that underscore volunteering in charities. The study reviewed the literature in great depth in order to frame its theoretical and empirical contributions. Accordingly, the study provided a framework to investigate the volunteer’s view point about organizational internal marketing, stimulating their moral identity and moral emotions that ultimately improve their participation and longevity turnover intentions. Essentially, the study thus provides new insights on how charities might positively influence volunteers’ pro-social behaviours. To the best of knowledge of the researcher, there has been no quantitative study that has empirically tested how internal marketing underpins the cognitive-affective dimensions of charity volunteers’ attitude formation in a way that leads to multiple relationship outcomes. The significance of the study is shown by the findings, contributions to scholarship in the field and implications for relevant practitioners.

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Globally Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) wield a tremendous amount of political and resource power. The nature and underlying values of these organisations often lead them to work with marginalised and vulnerable individuals, in some of the world’s most challenging environments. Yet, increasingly their work is contested and disputed by multiple actors. Accountability is a term which broadly refers to how these organisations ensure and demonstrate responsible action. Informed by the concepts of social action and Deweyan pragmatism, this study utilised a unique multi-dimensional approach to action research to explore the subject of NGO accountability. Utilising cycles of action and reflection, three separate dimensions of action research were run concurrently. The first-dimension of the inquiry captures the experience of a researcher-practitioner attempting to address the subject of accountability within their work in Uganda. The second-dimension of the action research facilitated a weekly group process of action and reflection. The third, youth-led, dimension of the action research refers to 96 group session held with 20 young women from the slums of Kampala. A practice model known as Participatory Inquiry in Practice (PIP) was designed, piloted and evaluated throughout this inquiry. Over the period of a year, urban youth from Kampala, known as PIP group members, selected a subject of inquiry and subsequently designed, implemented and analysed their own research. Three separate surveys with over 500 participants were undertaken. By utilising collective power, the groups were able to acquire new insights into their selected issues, whilst working in exceptionally challenging environments. The PIP group members' youth-led research led to an advocacy campaign on urban crime and the establishment of a youth-led business. The self-reflective and collaborative practitioner-based action research led to the development of a theoretically informed practice model, designed to enhance NGO accountability. The inquiry contributes to evident gaps in knowledge by providing a rare account of the experience of NGO practitioners trying to manage accountability in an authentic practice-based setting. From this experience, the complexity of accountability was highlighted. The inquiry identifies functional ways to enhance NGO accountability and evidences the importance of the human dimension of accountability. The study concludes by recognising the potential for complexity theory to enhance NGO accountability. A methodological contribution to knowledge is also offered, by detailing the action research process and by highlighting the significance of Dewey's pragmatic approach as a means to address complex practical problems.

There is increasing interest in the role of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) in research. NGOs are typically known for their work as service providers or advocates, but some NGOs conduct research alongside these other activities. NGOs’ involvement in service delivery and advocacy may provide opportunities for research. I assess three such opportunities. First, involvement in service delivery may mean NGOs can identify research questions that respond to frontline knowledge gaps, so ensuring research is relevant. Second, service delivery may provide a source of research data, through examining service delivery activities or using information collected through programme monitoring. Third, NGOs’ advocacy might support communication of research findings, by bringing a commitment to promoting action and channels to share results. These potential advantages of service delivery and advocacy for research are frequently suggested in the literature. However, there is limited evidence on the way these relationships between research, service delivery and advocacy work in practice, or on their variation between different contexts. This leaves little guidance on conditions needed to maximise the value of input from NGOs’ service delivery and advocacy to research. In response, this thesis examines these relationships between research, service delivery and advocacy through the experience of four NGOs in Malawi. I consider whether service delivery provides research questions and data and whether advocacy supports research communication. Based on the case NGOs’ experiences, I identify conditions within and outside NGOs that affect the value of drawing on service delivery and advocacy in these ways and scope to make these connections. I conclude by providing guidance on ways to support an effective role for NGOs’ service delivery and advocacy in research, with recommendations for NGOs, academic partners and donors.

Waqf or endowment as an institution begins with a pious intention to do good deeds for the benefit of one and others. In other words, waqf is a dedication made by one person for the benefit of others, with the intention that the dedicator be entitled to a continuous reward from Allah the Creator throughout the period of the endowment. Once the waqf is declared by the person it will effect a transfer of the property which is the subject matter of the dedication to Allah Almighty. However the benefit derived from the use of property will be given in accordance with the founder’s intention. Historically, waqf played a key role in the development of Muslim societies. Waqf served the Muslim community (ummah) in almost all fields, such as religion, education, medicine and other socio-economic activities. However, nowadays waqf has become dormant and less popular in Muslim countries. Waqf no longer serves the needs of the ummah due to problems, such as mismanagement, waqf laws and awareness of it in Muslim society. The status of waqf has deteriorated to such an extent that in some countries waqf assets have been neglected and abandoned. As a result of colonialism, Malaysia and Singapore adopted western laws, which precede Islamic laws including those dealing with waqf. Despite this, Johor and Singapore still provide the best models of the successful development of waqf. Therefore, it is interesting to compare the different environments and situations of the two states in order to identify the challenges faced by waqf institutions in both states. Based on a comprehensive literature review of issues affecting waqf in the two states, the following major themes were identified; legal issues, perceptions, management and operation. The importance of the legal system is basically to support and protect waqf in areas such as registration or amending the deeds. Any change in contemporary law does not necessarily mean it is against Shariah principles, as long as the state regulation upholds Shariah principles, in order to protect the waqf while catering for the current situation. Generally, both quantitative and qualitative data support the theory that many people still believe that waqf is only for religious purposes. The data obtained from both states also show that national differences play an important role in the variation of knowledge and awareness of waqf. In managing waqf, there are problems or challenges that have to be faced. The problems that can be detected are from three kinds, namely; development, management and public awareness. However, lack of awareness amongst the public becomes problematic when there is a need to increase and improve waqf assets. Based on the empirical analysis presented in this thesis, the last chapter’s purpose is to highlight policy recommendations with respect to improving waqf development and increasing public awareness. This small contribution not only fulfils the research requirement but hopefully also helps to make my beloved small country Brunei Darussalam more aware of and concerned with this important institution.

This thesis examines the ongoing transformation of China's state-society relationship by exploring the changing roles of, and relationships between, the state and grassroots NGOs. It is based on findings from over a year of empirical research undertaken at grassroots NGOs; thorough readings of core Party and government documents to investigate changes in attitudes from the top; and my subsequent work with many of these social actors over the years after my initial research period, adding a temporal dimension (2011-2015) to the study. Extended periods of participant observation allowed me to examine the finest details of the work of grassroots NGOs and their relationships with local state bodies, enabling me to develop an understanding of 'the quiet approach', which, I argue, is important in shaping the transformation of the state-society relationship. Analysis of past and recent state documents and institutions helped me to frame the behaviour of NGOs within the macro context of the transforming attitude of the state towards social organizing and society governing society. The temporal dimension was crucial in discerning the wave-like fluctuations that I found to characterize the transformation of the state-society relationship. Existing research often adopts either a bottom-up approach, viewing change as being created by social forces, or a top-down approach, viewing state forces as limiting, controlling and manipulating change. Ultimately, this thesis argues that the transformation" of the state-society relationship is a combination of these forces reacting to and engaging with one another: as state attitudes fluctuate, NGOs can respond by tempering their behaviour; by tempering their behaviour and laying low during times of 'down-waves' they incrementally build their own capacity, making themselves increasingly necessary to the state; through acting' quietly' they encourage the state to trust them; and as the state trusts and needs them more, NGOs become more irreversibly integrated into service provision and governance.

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Despite the lack of scholarly attention given to the voluntary sector in Saudi Arabia, the need for a deeper understanding of the dynamics of the NGO landscape in KSA has never been greater. Given Saudi Arabia’s global leadership in humanitarian and developmental aid and the growing scrutiny over the management of its non-governmental organizations (NGOs), especially post 9/11, the Saudi voluntary sector finds itself at an important crossroads. Calls for introspection, renewed management, and improved mechanisms for evaluation, control and monitoring have steadily been growing. This study argues that Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has a central role to play in harnessing the NGO landscape of KSA. There are many benefits in the integration of ICT within the landscape of the Saudi NGO in providing better coordination and communication within and between stakeholders, knowledge and information transfer and sharing, the education and training for its staff and more rigorous evaluation, and the control and monitoring of initiatives. However, in order to advance the ICT agenda within the voluntary sector in KSA, a knowledge base regarding the sector’s attitude towards ICT adoption is essential. The aim of this study therefore, is to understand the dynamics of the technology adoption process in Saudi NGOs based on the experiences of Saudi NGO managers. Critically, the nature, i.e. whether technology adoption is based on personal, organizational or environmental and external factors, or a combination of these predictors forms the primary aim of this study. Second, the structure of technology adoption, in terms of determining which of these aforementioned factors generate a greater willingness to adopt new technologies forms a secondary objective. A third study objective seeks to deduce the managerial and public policy implications of a greater understanding of the nature and structure of technology adoption in Saudi NGOs. Post-positivist critical realist ontology is adopted to guide the mixed methods implementation of the research. An initial series of interviews with 12 Saudi managers is conducted to determine the key factors that influence technology adoption followed by the main element of the study, a survey of 287 NGO managers to test the conceptualization of technology adoption, and accompanying hypotheses, derived from the extant literature review and qualitative phase. Multi-variate, bivariate analysis and moderation analysis were used to test the proposed relationships. The initial interviews identified a modified version of the commonly applied technology acceptance model, the UTAUT framework, accurately reflected technology adoption in the Saudi NGO context and specifically proposed that the key predictors were a combination of personal factors (performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, perceived risk), external or environmental factors (government support and competitive pressure) and finally organizational factors (facilitating conditions and compatibility). Multi-variate analysis validated this multi-dimensional nature of technology adoption in Saudi NGOs, but did not find statistical support for perceived risk, government support and compatibility, and with the exception of social influence, nor for any moderating role of gender and age on the personal predictive factors. The study contributes to theory since previous studies exploring technology adoption have adopted unitary approaches whereas the current study validates a multi-dimensional perspective as more reflective of technology adoption in Saudi NGOs. The implications of this finding, and for the inclusion and exclusion of predictive factors, are discussed. Specifically, the implications for managers and public policy are also overviewed. Finally, this study concludes with limitations and recommendations for further research.