Studies of 'young carers' in sub-Saharan Africa have increased in recent years. A focus on 'children' caring for parents with HIV has meant the role of older youth has often been neglected in discussions of caregiving, particularly how caring influences their futures and life transitions. Young people are under increasing pressure to obtain a good education and employment to support their families and make 'successful' transitions to 'adulthood', whilst in some instances also having to cope with the loss of parents and care for relatives with little external support. This thesis discusses the experiences and perceptions of young people making transitions to adulthood in Zambia and examines how these might be shaped by the 'critical moments' (Thomson et al, 2002) that occur in their lives. It is a comparative study of youth (aged 14 to 30) with and without caregiving responsibilities for a sick or disabled parent or relative, to establish how the responsibility of caring influences young people's transitions in comparison to their demographically similar but non-caregiving peers. Interviews and life-mapping methods were conducted with a total of 35 young people, 12 parents and relatives and 14 professionals. The thesis analyses young people's perceptions of significant transitions, such as leaving school, earning an income, initiation rites and marriage, in addition to more unpredictable changes in young people's lives, such as bereavement, parental divorce and separation, family illness and caregiving which often have significant impacts on young people's ability to navigate their pathways to adulthood according to wider social norms and ways. The study concludes that comparing caregiving and non-caregiving young people is not an appropriate way to understand the wider nuances of young people's lives. Youth in Zambia negotiate their livelihood realities across a continuum of care that they move in and out of and which alongside other significant factors, such as poverty, challenge their ability to complete socially expected transitions to adulthood.

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This study was concerned with identifying the impact of variables such as subjective burden, social support, positive aspects of caring, making decisions for the future, gender, income and respite on the mental health of older parent carers of a son or daughter with an intellectual disability (ID). Ninety-two carers aged between 57-87 (M = 70.8 years), of which 19.6% were male, from non-statutory organisations and groups, participated in the study. A cross-sectional survey research design was used to collect quantitative as well as qualitative data for the current study.

Abstract Objectives. The current study examined the relationship between psychological well-being and caring related stressors, coping strategies and Expressed Emotion (EE) in older family carers looking after their son or daughter who has an intellectual disability (ID). Additionally, two methods used to measure EE, the traditional Five Minute Speech Sample (FMSS) and the Preschool Five Minute Speech Sample (PFMSS), were compared. Design. A cross-sectional design with one group of participants was used to analyse the relationships between well-being and caring related stressors, coping strategies and EE in the parent in the family who provided most of the day-to-day support for the adult with ID. Method. Fifty-six participants completed a speech sample which was coded using the FMSS and the PFMSS. Participants completed the Carers' Assessment of Difficulties Index (CADI), Shortened Ways of Coping Revised Questionnaire (SWQ-R), General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) and Adaptive Behaviour Scale - Residential and Community: Second Edition (ABS- RC:2). Results. The two different methods used to measure EE significantly differed in terms of classification of overall EE. The majority of older family carers experienced average levels of psychological well-being, but high EE. Wishful thinking coping was found to mediate the relationship between stressors and psychological well-being and between problem behaviour and psychological well-being, resulting in lower psychological well-being. Conclusions. Overall, the findings do not support the common perception that caring for an adult son or daughter with ID is overwhelmingly burdensome. The findings seem to support the 'adaptional' hypothesis, which suggests that over the years, caregiving becomes easier and families better adjust to their caregiving role. The difficulties with using the FMSS and the PFMSS with adults with ID were discussed and theoretical and clinical implications of the research were explored.

Attachment theory holds that there exists a caregiving behavioural system underpinning the manner in which we provide care and support to close significant others. Evidence for this is found in caregiving for partner in romantic relationships (Feeney & Collins, 2004) and in caregiving for infants (George and Solomon, 1999). Researchers have also found that attachment styles are predictive of parenting (Rholes, Simpson, & Blakely, 1995). However, no attempts have been made to see how caregiving styles across different relational contexts are related, or indeed whether caregiving mediates the link between attachment and parenting. This study examined attachment and caregiving as predictors of parenting styles, both independently and in mediational models, with data from 125 couples with children aged 7-8. Participants were accessed via their children's schools and completed questionnaires. Data were analysed using the Actor-Partner Interdependence Model (dyadic analysis). Findings indicated that both actor and partner attachment predicted caregiving, with lower levels of both avoidance and anxiety being associated with more positive caregiving patterns. Parenting styles were predicted by attachment styles both directly and indirectly, with caregiving variables partially mediating the link between attachment and parenting. Mothers and fathers' authoritative (optimal) parenting was negatively predicted by both avoidance and anxiety directly, but also indirectly via caregiving sensitivity (all parents), cooperation (fathers), and proximity (mothers). Models for authoritarian and permissive (less optimal) parenting styles are also reported. Findings are discussed with reference to the caregiving behavioural system, attachment theory, and gender differences in caregiving.

This thesis explores the subjective meaning of the post-caring experience for a range of former carers, and the conditions and consequences of such experiences, using a qualitative, interpretive approach. The research was based on grounded theory and, after a preparatory stage, data was gathered primarily through semi-structured in-depth interviews with thirty-seven theoretically sampled former carers. These interviews were carried out in the East Midlands between February 2000 and June 2001. Other sources of data were interviews with key informants and a research diary. Drawing on research and theoretical models within the disciplines of sociology, social policy, psychology, and politics, the thesis increases the understanding of many different aspects of former carers' lives. Examples of these are the implications of the cessation of caring, their health, the way they reconstructed their post-caring lives, and their experiences of different sources of support. The substantive theory that emerged from the analysis is developed into a theoretical representation of the post-caring experience. This highlights the extensive influence of both caring and its cessation on post-caring experiences, and introduces new concepts into the literature on post-caring life. It argues that former carers' lives are characterized by a postcaring trajectory that has three phases. These are the "post-caring void", "closing down `the caring time"' and "constructing life post-caring". The concept of the "serial carer' is also developed to provide an understanding of the cyclical experience of caring in the lives of the participants. The thesis concludes with recommendations for the enhancement of policy and practice in supporting former carers, and for further research in this area.

The experience of carers of people with young onset dementia has not received much empirical attention, despite increasing recognition that younger carers' experience may be different from that of older carers. The current thesis thereby begins with a narrative review of the literature that argues that an emphasis on the needs of younger carers for services has neglected to consider their psychological needs. The review first considers ways in which dementia is perceived to be different for younger people and their carers and why this has then led to the development of specialist services. However, it is then argued, with illustrative examples, that the provision of specialist services does not meet younger carers' need for psychological support. The review then considers the emotional impact of younger carers' experiences and attempts to elucidate their coping strategies. The review concludes that younger carers' subjective experience and coping strategies may be different from those of older carers. The broader implications for the development of services are discussed and recommendations made for future research. Subsequently, in an attempt to address the need for a focused and detailed exploration of the experience and coping strategies adopted by younger carers, a qualitative study, using interpretative phenomenological analysis, was undertaken with six partners of people with young onset dementia. Four themes are critically discussed that related to younger carers' coping strategies and their implications for clinical practice are considered. The thesis concludes with a critical reflection on the research process. This includes further discussion of the research findings and of the methodological, practical and process issues encountered during the research. The significance of the research findings in relation to the development of guidelines and interventions for carers of peopTe with young onset dementia are considered. Recommendations are also made for clinical practice and future research.