This thesis centres on the perceptions of social work professionals involved in incest intervention in Taiwan. It is based on 39 in-depth, semi-structured interviews with respondents from three categories: social workers, social work supervisors and counsellors/therapists, from different regions of Taiwan, working in Domestic Violence and Sexual Assault Prevention Centres. The gender distribution of the interviewees, 35 women and 4 men, reflects the numerical dominance of women in social work. This study shows that the majority of the respondents were assigned child protection work without consultation, reflecting the hierarchical decision-making process in Taiwanese social work, overriding staff autonomy, personal preferences and training background. Child protection work creates high pressure and necessitates joint decision making involving all related disciplines. Almost every worker interviewed felt a high level of stress and a need for support in dealing with incest/child sexual cases, perhaps due to insufficient knowledge and inadequate training. The shorter the time frame they face, the more mistakes they may make. I utilized two theoretical viewpoints, including family systems theory associated with pathological behaviours and feminist theory, to elucidate how interactions between gender and power contribute to gender inequality in intervention outcomes. My findings suggest that the current child protection procedure in Taiwan raises significant concerns. These include time-constraints in intervention and psychotherapy, the sequencing of the procedure, and lack of gender-awareness. It seems the hierarchical organisational structure directly and indirectly encourages social workers to be overreliant on their supervisors in decision-making. The relationship between the supervisor and supervisee is often inadequate, leading to many supervisees feeling undermined and discouraged from growing personally in confidence. My study found that no one particular intervention fits all cases and the therapeutic approach chosen will depend on the circumstances of the case, based on the therapist's training background, individual personality variations and experience. However, practitioners identified 'sensitivity: 'accompaniment' and 'empowerment' as effective and important. Radical changes in attitude, an incorporation of a feminist approach, a gender understanding work culture and a clear resolve to make positive changes in the fields of education, practice and reforms in legal and hierarchical structures may resolve some of the difficulties the present system of social work practice in incest faces.

The thesis examines a social phenomenon that has come to be referred to within UK policy discourse as ‘child sexual exploitation’. It is a qualitative, inter-disciplinary study, presenting new data drawn from a series of semi-structured interviews. Two groups of interviewees feature in the thesis: young people with personal experience of sexual exploitation; and professionals with varied responsibilities for identification and onward referral in this area. The aim of the thesis is to provide an in-depth understanding of child sexual exploitation through a thematic analysis of the rich accounts provided by those directly involved. The thesis is about child sexual exploitation. At the same time it is about a range of problems – personal, social and professional – that beset and inform this public issue. The thesis explores the wider problems experienced by young people with particular experience of child sexual exploitation, and also the problems experienced by professionals seeking to work effectively with young people identified in this way. However, at root the thesis addresses the possibility that (further) problems might arise from the way in which ‘child sexual exploitation’ itself is conceptualised within policy frameworks in Wales. In particular, the thesis develops an analysis that is critical of policy that wholly defines and provides an explanation for ‘child sexual exploitation’ according to a ‘grooming model’ – and one in which children and young people figure predominantly as the passive victims of predatory adult perpetrators. The findings suggest that there are multiple forms of sexual exploitation, and central to any understanding of sexual exploitation is that underpinning the exchange of sex is the meeting (and taking advantage) of unmet needs. The findings also relay broader messages about the role of care in prevention and intervention work. Whilst the thesis acknowledges and in no way dismisses ‘grooming’ as a way of understanding child sexual exploitation, it is argued that a re-articulation of the grooming model is needed in order to recognize that children and young people can be aware of the coercive nature of their relationships, and to give greater weight to the reasons why they may choose to stay in exploitative relationships. In addition, it is argued that ‘child sexual exploitation’ (as a policy concept) should include other kinds of transactional sex which may be more transient, but equally raise questions about the range of choices available to young people that prompt them to exchange sex for financial, emotional or material reward. The thesis is exploratory and critical in its contribution to an understanding of child sexual exploitation and professional practice, and seeks to provide insights and understanding to a mixed audience, both academic and professional.

Domestic abuse puts children at risk. There is evidence that the health of these children is compromised. This thesis aims to explore whether specific health services to children living in refuges with their mothers who have fled domestic abuse should be targeted at this group. Method The epidemiological, comparative and corporate methods of health care needs assessment were used. Evidence for effective interventions to address the key health issues for this group of children was sought. Few other service models could be found against which to directly benchmark. Guidance for services to children in these circumstances was thus included in the review as a comparator. Professionals and Mothers were interviewed to explore their perspective on the needs of these children. Results Children in refuge have an increased risk of mental health problems and poor access to health services. They are more likely to have suffered maltreatment themselves. Refuges in Cardiff provide assessment and a programme of work and support for children. The specialist health visitor role uncovers unmet health needs in the under 5s. Professionals working with these children and their mothers are concerned about their mental health and are looking for more specialist CAMHS (Child and Adolescent Mental Health Service) help. A number of barriers stand between children and the health services they need. Referral criteria are not clear and timeliness of services and continuity of care is an issue for mobile families. Conclusions A model for health service is suggested for children in refuge using the logic model method. The Primary Mental Health Worker role should provide the advice and expertise Tier 1 workers require and demystify the referral criterion for specialist CAMHS. Timing and continuity of care for appointments requires joint decision making and a flexible service. Health staff requires training to provide an acceptable and accessible service to vulnerable families.

This thesis investigates attitudes to sexual violence against children as revealed in penal codes and criminal courts in Florence during the long nineteenth century. The main question is: how did the approach to sexual violence against children shown by institutions of the state, society and family change throughout the so-called century of childhood? The choice of Florence as a case study of child abuse in Italy was made for three main reasons: first, the succession of several régimes –not unusual in Italy during this period- permits me to examine how different governments regulated sexual violence towards children, tracing continuities and changes; second, the considerable attention paid to children, to their health and education, by private and public institutions in Florence throughout the century would lead historians to assume there was a general condemnation of child sexual abuse; last but not least, the widespread historical assumption that Tuscany possessed especially advanced and modern penal codes made me wonder whether Tuscany was also especially progressive in attitudes to sexual violence against children. Given the gulf between law and judicial practice, the latter has been analysed through criminal records. Even though during the body of the thesis sexual violence against girls, and against boys, and within the context of incestuous relationship have been analysed within different sections, in the conclusions they have been brought together offering a nuanced account of varieties of response, while also keeping in mind the central research question.

Background: It is estimated that adolescent offenders account for 65% of contact child sexual abuse. A range of explanatory theories and models of intervention have been proposed. These are mainly based on cognitive theories with Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) and psycho-education remaining as the dominant models of treatment intervention. This research explored the issue of harmful sexual behaviour from the psychosocial perspective, drawing on attachment theory and social constructionism. Aim: The research explored attachment strategies among young people with harmful sexual behaviour. It examined young people’s understanding and explanations regarding their sexually abusive behaviour. This included an exploration of how the participants’ accounts and defensive strategies were shaped by wider family and cultural discourses regarding masculinity and sexual activity. In selected cases, the family intergenerational patterns of attachment and emotional regulation were analysed. Furthermore, the research explored the prevalence of harmful sexual behaviour in the study area. This included an exploration of statutory responses and services which were offered to people who engaged in harmful sexual behaviour. Methods: The research employed three interconnected research methods: a) a quantitative audit data of fifty cases which had been reported to the Children’s Services; b) qualitative and descriptive quantitative exploration of eight Transition to Adulthood Attachment Interviews and semi-structured interviews; c) qualitative exploration of the family context and trans-generational patterns of defensive strategies by conducting an Adult Attachment Interview in three cases. The analysis of the attachment and open-ended interviews utilised a combination of the structured ‘discourse analysis’ developed for the Adult Attachment Interview and Critical Discourse Analysis. Findings: The research found that there was no clear and consistent pathway of social care for young people who engaged in harmful sexual behaviour. The analysis of psychological defensive processes found that all of the participants presented with complex insecure attachment strategies alongside intrusions of unresolved traumas or losses. The exploration of intergenerational patterns of attachment strategies identified that all parents showed complex avoidant attachment strategies with intrusion of unresolved trauma and loss. The qualitative study identified a range of discourse themes and strategies in the accounts the young people offered in order to explain their actions and to maintain their sense of self. The dominant discourse themes shared by the young people were: a) life is hard and violence is normal; b) a sense of powerlessness; c) sexual entitlement, d) bravado and denial of vulnerability. Conclusion: Complex insecure attachment strategies with intrusion of trauma and loss play a significant role in the development of harmful sexual behaviour. In addition, the study suggests that the complex relationship between care, comfort and sexual behaviour should be a central focus of clinical interventions with this group of young people and should be investigated further in future research studies.

This study investigated the relationship between maternal childhood experience of emotional abuse (CEA) and/or emotional neglect (CEN) and subsequent second-generation parenting outcomes. A systematic review of the literature was carried out, with twelve studies included for review. Evidence was found of a relationship between maternal experience of CEA/CEN and a negative impact on the subsequent parent-child relationship and parenting behaviours; including greater dysfunctional parent-child interactions, lower empathy, greater psychological control, greater child maltreatment potential and punitiveness. Evidence in relation to the impact on parenting competence was less robust. For practitioners, these findings highlight the importance of considering maternal childhood experiences when working with parents and when attempting to make sense of children's difficulties. Methodological weaknesses were highlighted and recommendations for future research made. Secondly, a cross-sectional study was carried out which explored whether early maladaptive schemas (EMSs) mediated the relationship between maternal CEA/CEN and attributions of perceived control over failure (PCF) in child care-giving interactions. Mothers (N=111) completed five self-report questionnaires in relation to the above. Multiple mediation analyses using bias corrected bootstrapping were carried out. In line with expectations, significant relationships were found between both CEA and CEN and EMSs. CEN also demonstrated both a direct and indirect effect on PCF score, via the EMSs Social Isolation/Alienation. However, the indirect effect was in the opposite direction to that predicted. No other indirect effects were found. CEA demonstrated neither a direct effect on PCF, nor an indirect effect via any of the EMSs. Results are discussed in the context of current research.

In recent years the issue of children’s contact with non-resident parents has been increasingly debated. The policy gaze has focused on contested contact when there are allegations of domestic abuse. Some commentators argue that in circumstances of domestic abuse, contact with an abusive father may not be in the ‘best interests’ of the child. To support these claims they point to evidence that domestic abuse adversely affects children, and domestic abuse often continues following separation. Children’s views of contact in circumstances of domestic abuse remain underresearched, as such their views on this issue have been missing from policy debates. The research aims to uncover how children view and experience contact with nonresident fathers when in the context of domestic abuse. A qualitative methodology was developed for the research. In-depth interviews were carried out with both children and their mothers. The findings confirm that conceptualisations of domestic abuse that focus on discrete acts or incidents of violence do not correspond with children’s and mother’s accounts of abuse. Domestic abuse was a constant in the lives of children and mothers. Children were exposed to domestic abuse before and following parental separation. The research uncovers the complex negotiations children make when family relationships are characterised by abuse. Children identified domestic abuse as a core issue when forming views about contact with their fathers. They tried to make sense of and developed their own analysis of their fathers’ abuse and strategies to cope with it. Children also highlighted a range of issues beyond domestic abuse that influenced their views about contact. The role children should have in disputes about contact in is contested. Children may be considered incompetent to form a view or their views are constructed as a product of parental manipulation. The research provides insights into children’s experiences of participating in contact disputes. It points to limitations in current Scottish legal mechanisms that are designed to take children’s views into account and questions the respect afforded to children’s participation in disputes. The thesis concludes by highlighting the theoretical, policy and practice implications that result from this research.

The outcome for children who become involved in criminal behaviour can be bleak, and gaining a criminal record can have effects on all aspects of their lives; including mental health, relationships and employment. Supporting children not to become involved in the Youth Justice System is the best way to protect against these outcomes. There are a variety of risk factors which are known to place children at risk of becoming involved in offending behaviour. However, whilst many children with these risk factors do not go on to offend or gain criminal records, few studies have examined the factors that are protective influences. This study employed a qualitative approach; using thematic analysis of semi-structured interviews conducted with 5 children who were referred to a Youth Offending Team preventative programme, and who did not go on to offend. Nine themes were identified in the children’s answers. These were: having had enough of antisocial behaviour, awareness of consequences, goals and aspirations, identity, strategies, understanding the need for authority, support, positive relationships outside immediate circle, alternative activitiesFrom these themes, seventeen key factors were identified as being important in these children’s resistance to offending. These factors were found to be both within the child and within their environment, and were that the children: showed an understanding of the possible consequences of future negative behaviour on themselves, showed an understanding of the need for authority, had a goal in life, viewed themselves positively, distanced themselves from their past behaviour, had strategies to manage negative friends, showed that they have ‘had enough’ of antisocial behaviour, showed an understanding of the possible consequences of future negative behaviour on their family, distanced themselves from others who offend, had opportunities to be a good role model, had strategies to avoid even minor antisocial behaviour, had strategies to avoid trouble spots, had support from family, had co-ordinated support from professionals, had access to alternative activities, had positive peers and had a positive relationship with an adult outside their immediate circleThe seventeen factors were developed into a theoretical model, which was used to produce a framework for intervention for Educational Psychologists (EPs). The validity of this model was discussed by considering its fit with the previous literature around both desistance from, and resistance to, offending behaviour. A role for EPs using this model and a framework for working within Youth Offending Teams is discussed along with future research directions.

This thesis explores implications of support and advocacy with substance-misusing women during and after pregnancy in promoting parental involvement and children’s welfare within the regulatory child care framework. It is uniquely situated in relation to social construction, juridification of family lifeworlds, relations of power, and theorisation of an enabling process informed by a rights discourse that facilitates communicative action. Chapter 1 introduces the rationale for this research and contextualises the work of the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children’s (NSPCC) Liverpool Families and Substance Support Team (FaSST) service for substance-misusing parents. It utilises observation evidence, outlining FaSST’s relationship to wider professional and agency networks. An expanded overview of chapter organisation makes the distinctiveness of this exploratory research clear; as it relates theory and practice within the previously little researched area of advocacy with substance misusing parents to promote the best interests of children’s welfare. Chapter 2 develops issues of social construction, identity, risk and relations of power vi affecting substance misusing parents within the modern state. Chapter 3 considers the development of child protection, children’s safeguarding, actuarialism and issues of governance. Chapter 4 examines Habermas’ theory of communicative action, rights discourses and how support and advocacy might develop. Remaining chapters examine research fieldwork. Chapter 5 explains the qualitative research design, research method and ethical considerations. Chapter 6 analyses data in terms of governance and risk and tentatively theorises those matters, and chapter 7 analyses data and theorises possibilities for support and advocacy. Chapter 8 formulates conclusions regarding how the FaSST has addressed parents’ concerns and promoted involvement in their children’s interests within the regulatory child care framework. It theorises support and advocacy in that context, and it identifies implications for its further development.

Since the emergence of the global child rights movement in the late 1990s, there has been a notable increase in research and policy focusing on child sexual abuse (CSA) in African settings (Mildred & Plummer, 2009). My thesis contributes to this field by using a case study approach to examine how residents of an informal settlement define and respond to CSA. Studies in Tanzanian settings have started to explore communities’ perceptions of CSA (Abeid, Muganyizi, Olsson, Darj, & Axemo, 2014; Kisanga, Nystrom, Hogan, & Emmelin, 2011). However, the thesis moves beyond questioning what types of sexual acts are understood to constitute CSA, instead asking why some acts are considered abusive and others not. Recognizing the culturally constructed nature of abuse, it examines how living within the informal settlement context affects residents’ understandings of two prominent themes: consent and harm. The thesis also examines local protective mechanisms for preventing and responding to acts of CSA. When considering CSA prevention, it notes that local prevention strategies typically utilize a risk avoidance approach; there is consequently inadequate emphasis on addressing social, economic and infrastructural factors perpetuating the risk of CSA within informal settlements. Moreover, in a research setting where statutory and community-based normative frameworks co-exist, the thesis analyses the impact of legal pluralism on decision-making relating to access to justice. Drawing on Moore’s (1973) concept of semi-autonomous social fields, it argues that the co-existence of multiple systems allows for a high level of choice over which interventions to pursue. However, adults typically make decisions on victims’ behalf, potentially choosing interventions that meet their own interests, rather than prioritizing the child’s. The choice offered by co-existing normative systems can therefore disadvantage victims of CSA in their pursuit of justice.