Background: Lack of understanding of factors that contribute to an individual woman's risk of partner violence as well as factors that collectively account for the distribution of violence across settings, continues to compromise efforts to design effective prevention programs. Likewise, key methodological questions remain unanswered, most notably how best to conceptualize, capture, and measure partner violence for the purposes of research. This thesis attempts to bridge these gaps by analyzing the risk and protective factors of partner violence across a variety of low and middle-income settings, with an emphasis on Brazil and Peru. Methods: The analysis herein draws on data from the WHO Multi-Country Study of Domestic Violence and Women's Health, a population-based survey that interviewed over 24,000 reproductive age women, in 15 sites about their experiences of violence. The thesis examines the patterning of partner violence in Brazil and Peru and explores the relative utility of using Latent Class analysis (LCA) compared with traditional WHO case definitions, to identify and classify cases of partner violence. It then uses generalized estimating equations to develop an explanatory model of the factors that best predict an individual woman's risk of experiencing severe partner violence, as identified by LCA. Later chapters present two ecological analyses: one that identifies the cluster- level factors in Brazil and Peru that emerge as most predictive of cluster-level prevalences of domestic violence; and a second analysis that uses the full WHO data set, 18 Demographic and Health Surveys, and a variety of United Nations and independent data bases to test various theories on how macro-level factors work to influence a country's overall level of partner violence. Results: LCA categorizes cases of partner violence differently than the WHO case definition, although both tend to identify similar risk factors. The WHO approach, however, seriously underestimates the effect size for cases of serious violence. Without further research it remains unclear whether the categories identified through LCA represent fundamentally different "types" of partner violence as suggested by some research in high income countries, or merely differential groupings by serverity. At an individual level, partner-related factors emerge as the most predictive of a woman's lifetime risk of partner violence, including exposure to violence as a child, level of controlling behavior, frequency of drunkenness, history of fights with other men and having outside sexual partners. Marital conflict, having more than two children, living together versus being married, not completing secondary school, and poor communication between the couple are also strongly associated with partner violence in both Brazil and Peru. At a cluster level, the proportion of women completing secondary school, norms around male dominance, and the proportion of households in which a partner routinely comes home drunk are among the strongest variables predicting the cluster-level mean of partner violence. At a macro level, a range of variables related to women's status, gender inequality, social norms and overall level of socio-economic development predict a country's prevalence of partner violence. in multivariate analysis, norms related to the acceptability of wife beating and male control of female behavior, as well as women's access to formal wage employment appear the most strongly linked to the distribution of past year partner violence. A country's level of male drinking or male binge 2 drinking does not predict levels of abuse, illustrating that the factors that predict individual level risk can be different from those that predict population-level risk. Conclusion: The next generation of research should focus on longitudinal and mixed method studies to help clarify the temporal associations among variables and identify how and why certain factors emerge as markers for risk.

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The world over, people are becoming ever increasingly concerned about the prevalence with which domestic abuse occurs. Notwithstanding a well supported series of policy interventions which have developed out of long-term social and intellectual engagement, domestic abuse does not seem to be going away. It is on this ground that this thesis sits. The question emerged of whether there is simply nothing more to be done, or whether there are limitations to current understandings and practices that a consideration of the kind of analytical tools Foucault's work could offer an examination of discourses of domestic abuse. Foucault encouraged the questioning of a particular understanding of domestic abuse, where radical feminist discourses were perceived to be rendering visible the needs of victims by putting into action the demands of a pre-existing group of women. In this study, Foucault's insights were used to explore some of the complex, heterogeneous and nuanced ways in which domestic abuse is put into discourse. Relying on Foucault's work facilitated a rethinking of radical feminist discourses of domestic abuse and how they operate, producing varying power effects. In this thesis it was contended that radical feminist concerns are not compromised by a turn to Foucault rather such a turn presents an opportunity to redevelop them. The argument laid out in this thesis was that by acknowledging the conceptual limitations of radical feminist discourses of domestic abuse which continue to influence contemporary opinion does not inevitably lead to the demise of radical feminist politics, for recognising the subject as politically invested does not undermine political engagement with the issue of domestic abuse, it opens it up.

Whilst policy makers and practitioners focus on what works in particular local areas to tackle and prevent domestic violence against women, many individual women (often with their children) move away from their local area. either temporarily or permanently. Much of this migration is necessarily secret as they are escaping an abuser who intimately knows their habits and interests, friends and family, and may well try to track them down. Since the establishment of women's refuges in the 1970s, there have to some extent been places of safety to flee to; but many women leave the abuse without knowing this, or without being able to secure a place in a refuge, or go to informal contacts such as family and friends. In addition, refuge services face an increasing tension between the local basis of their funding and the fact that most women accessing their services have, of necessity, travelled from elsewhere . This research generates and uses a wide range of data sources· administrative data, surveys, interviews, and creative groupwork - to explore the extent and the implications of the journeys women make to escape domestic violence. Quantifying women's journeys to access services throughout England provides a measure of the extent of migration journeys, the distances travelled; and mapping indicates the geographical patterns and helps explore the processes. Women's experiences, provided via interviews and photography, evidence the degrees of force and agency within different stages of their journeys; and the practical and emotional impacts of their relocation. The research provides a new conceptualisation of women's domestic violence journeys; relating them to understandings of forced migration. It provides measures of the extent and implications at a range of geographical scales: individual, local Authority and nationally within the UK. It also draws out specific consequences of these conceptual and evidential developments for service provision and policy within the UK. 1

This study analyses, from a socio-demographic perspective, the role of different factors associated with intimate partner violence (IPV), the pathways through which these factors operate, and the specific circumstances in which violence occurs. The study puts emphasis on understanding IPV from the male point of view. To be able to understand the conditions in which conflict does or does not result in violence, both violent and non-violent men are investigated. For the analysis, a multidimensional framework is used which is based on the Ecological Model. The study uses an integrated analysis of quantitative and qualitative data. First, a survey for the population covered by the Mexican Social Security Institute is used to examine the association between IPV and relevant socio-demographic and contextual characteristics. Next, data from a quantitative sample factory-based survey is analysed to explore more specific quantitative information related to IPV. Finally, qualitative data gathered mainly through in-depth interviews are used to understand in-depth the contextual factors influencing IPV. There were found different pathways through which men could become or not become aggressors against their partners. These pathways are made up of different components and factors that operate at different levels of analysis and are interconnected among each other. Nevertheless, all of these components and factors have their roots in two cultural issues: the predominant culture of violence and the gender system ruling in the society. The first of these issues is mainly reflected in the acceptance of violence that is learned by individuals mainly during childhood through violent experiences within their natal family. The second issue, gender, dominates all the spheres that affect the use or not of physical violence by men against their female partners. However, it is within the relationship dynamics where gender plays an essential role in the use of IPV. The main policy implication is that there is a need for appropriate and specific prevention programmes that primarily target young men. These programmes should encourage and offer support. to men to reinterpret the social rules that are associated with violent behaviour.

Research suggests that domestic abuse is a hidden crime in society which leaves victims living in fear and isolation. Many healthcare and community prevention strategies have been implemented to support women and children yet there is a lack of evaluated research on the effectiveness of intervention programmes for perpetrators who voluntarily seek help. This study aims to develop and evaluate a schema focused model of aggression and therapeutic approach specifically for perpetrators of domestic abuse who voluntarily seek help. A comparison is drawn between Completers and Non-Completers of the therapy programme to determine developmental and maintenance interference factors to effectiveness. The Aggression Schema Model (ASM) proposes that bio-evolutionary functions, attachment needs, learning and repetition in conjunction with formative childhood and adulthood experiences influence the development of hostile cognitions and interacting cognitive subsystems. Implicational meanings further influence affect and behaviour regulation. Abuser Schema Therapy (AST) is designed to transform hostile implicational meanings which are relevant to aggressive behaviour. AST is based on a gender-neutral, non confrontational approach to therapeutic intervention and process. A realist methodological approach was adopted and a quasi-experimental design applied. Self report measures of aggression, reaction, assertiveness and dysfunctional attitude were administered pre and post therapy. Qualitative data was attained from case studies, semistructured assessments and questionnaires. The ASM and AST are critically discussed. The quantitative findings indicated a significant reduction in physical aggression, hostility and anger, whereas verbal aggression did not significantly change over time. Further reactions to anger provoking situations and assertiveness were significantly reduced and dysfunctional attitudes indicated factors improving to psychological strengths and increase in self-esteem. The results were maintained after a 3-month follow-upInterference factors to completion of AST are identified and discussed and case studies are reported which illustrate bio-evolutionary functions, attachment relationships and formative experiencesp ertinent to the developmento f abusives chemasin childhood and adulthood. In conclusion, the results of this study add to knowledge and understanding of therapeutic practices for perpetrators who voluntarily seek help. AST and ASM provides a schema model and therapeutic approach which can inform community based and healthcare agencies to work towards reducing aggression in the home to ultimately help victims of domestic abuse

The purpose of this study is to examine women's understandings of domestic violence during pregnancy. More specifically it explores: a) a range of women's experiences and interpretations of domestic violence during pregnancy, b) the meanings of domestic violence during pregnancy to the women themselves, and c) the context in which their meanings are embedded. Included in the study are women's recommendations for improvements in the care provided by maternity and health care professions for women experiencing domestic violence during pregnancy. In this qualitative study in depth individual interviews were conducted with a total of twenty two women. Two pre-prepared indices of violent acts and injuries, The Violence Assessment Index (VAI) and the Injury Assessment Index (IAI) were utilised on completion of interviews as a means of uncovering violent acts and injuries women sustained during the worst violent event in pregnancy. The study was guided by the principles of research from a feminist perspective and the inductive process of grounded theory. Findings indicated that practices in maternity care settings were not orientated to meeting the needs of the women in the study. Women's experiences were invalidated, silent, and not accounted for. The difficulties described by women can be divided into those that made it difficult for women to tell their stories and those -that prevent midwives and other. health care professionals from responding appropriately to the psychosocial context of woman abuse during pregnancy. Apart from the physical impact of violent acts and injuries on the body during pregnancy, women reported a variety of challenges to their sense of self, and self-esteem. Feelings of vulnerability and protectiveness toward the unborn baby were exacerbated by violent events and embodiments that are specific to the bodily condition of pregnancy. This was reflected in women's anxieties about maternity care professionals contacting statutory agencies over child protection concerns. Approximately one-third of women reported that domestic violence was worse after the birth of their babies. Women revealed that the arrival of a dependent infant threw their violent relationships into ever more disarray. The insidious and controlling behaviours of their violent partner was a source of anxiety, emotional distress, and physical exhaustion which was neither self-limiting or mild in nature. Other main findings relate to women's experiences of domestic violence and abortion. Women described the threatening behaviours men used during their attempts to influence the reproductive autonomy and decisions of the women. Experiences of domestic violence were mainly discussed in the context of relationship quality. Moreover, familial and social support networks played a significant role throughout the abortion experience of women. Implications arising from the study point to the need for maternity and health care professionals to listen to women. And to explore the contextual components of maternity and health care that inhibit woman-centred approaches to domestic Violence during pregnancy.

Women's movements are key actors for adding domestic violence against women to the public agenda and for influencing the adoption of policies that deal with it. The aim of this thesis is to determine what strategies women's movements use to obtain policies and legislation on domestic violence against women, and how they adapt these strategies according to specific political actors that are proposed to be more helpful to women's movements' attempts. It proposes that women's movements direct their mechanisms towards social, international and especially domestic political spheres. Two actors pertaining to the political sphere, women in the nationallegislarure and the women's policy agency, influence the strategies that women's movements use, the movements' chances of success, and the extent to which the movements need to interact with the other twO spherc=s. social and international. I use a '1ualirativc= small-N comparison of t four SQuth-American countries, namely Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Uruguay. The main data collection is through personal face-to-face interviews with members of women's organisations as well as '1uc=scionnaires sent to them. The findings suppon the relevance of the twO actors of the political sphere and suggest that women's movement vary their strategies according to the variant characteristics of these actors, i.e. percentage of 1 women legislators and status of women's policy agengy. It also finds that women's movements always direct mechanisms towards the society, but they increase the interaction with 'the latter, again according to the aforementioned variation. Finally, it finds that strategies directed towards the international sphere, although relevant, are used less frequently by women's organisations. The theory can be extended further to other women's issues if it incorporates some additional political and social actors, as well as to other areas beyond South America. ,