Asylum claims in developing countries are increasing as a result of conflict and resource competition. As claims have increased and have included some non-genuine claims that have made headlines, concerns about the number of non-genuine claims have been used to justify increased stringency of legislation and policies relevant to the process of seeking asylum. This thesis explores both the psychological consequences of current asylum legislation on asylum seekers and the psychological consequences of supporting asylum seekers and refugees to meet the requirements of UK law. The literature review systemically reviewed studies investigating the psychological impact of awaiting an asylum decision and discussed the possible explanatory factors. For those awaiting their decision, the process was associated with increased psychological distress, compared to individuals no longer awaiting a decision. Distress also appeared to increase as a function of duration of wait. Uncertainty was commonly proposed as instrumental to asylum seekers' psychological distress. All studies highlighted that current policies and legislation adversely affect asylum seeker's psychological well-being and it is argued that change is required, reducing time taken for asylum claims. The empirical study explored positive and negative effects on charity-employed staff supporting asylum seekers and refugees. Secondary traumatic stress (STS) and post-traumatic growth (PTG) were assessed in staff working for charities that provide practical support to asylum seekers/ refugees across the UK. Measures of team support, organisational, social support, empathy, personal characteristics and ways of coping were also assessed. High levels of STS and low levels of PTG were found, potentially highlighting the need for strategies to mitigate distress for individuals providing practical support to asylum seekers and refugees. Collectively, this thesis suggests that the current asylum process is associated with both direct and indirect psychological consequences, which are prominent and aversive. Suggestions for future research and possible interventions are provided.

Over the past two decades the focus of social anthropology has increasingly shifted towards issues of identity and identity formation among immigrant populations. As the subjects of anthropological research change, the discipline increasingly seeks to understand identity processes amongst population groups which link more than one country through physical, as well as mental, processes. Thus, the question ‘where do I belong?’ is at the heart of this thesis which explores the various ways in which Afghan refugees in London imagine and enact their identity through the (re-)production of a home and a homeland in exile. Furthermore, this research comes at a time when growing conservatism in the European Union creates a negative image of an essentialised ‘refugee’, which has an adverse effect on refugee populations around the region. Through the use of narratives, this study highlights how Afghans are making sense of their altered status as refugees within the host society by attempting to (re-)create coherent life narratives on the basis of memories related to the home and the homeland, as well as their more recent experiences in the host society. It draws attention to the negotiation of a sense of belonging, as well as its construction, in an oscillation between roots and routes: between the refugees' moral community of co-nationals and the respective social-cultural practices, norms and values exercised on one hand and the present existence in the unknown and unfamiliar on the other hand which, however, also offers new opportunities. Thus, the study emphasises both the particularities in the universalised experience of being a refugee and the situational character of identity production through the juggling of various strands of memories, on the national, communal and individual levels, depending on the antagonism with which one is confronted. Through a preoccupation with ‘truth’, ‘true refugees’ in the case of the host society and ‘true Afghan-ness’ in the case of the Afghan population, social relations among the refugee population are fragmented. Afghans enclose themselves, withdrawing largely from the host society, and only selectively engaging with it. At the same time, through the ever-vigilant imagined community of Afghans in London and the threat of social sanctions against those not conforming with the dominant interpretations of ‘pure Afghan-ness’, Afghans view one another with a degree of mistrust and engage in few social relations contained in clearly defined networks. Thus, ‘identity’ and the sense of belonging are never taken for granted but must be justified on a daily basis.

vThis thesis explores everyday geographies of belonging of young refugees living in Glasgow, Scotland. The young participants are aged between 15-25 years and have arrived in the city within the last three years. A multi-layered understanding of young refugees’ sense of belonging and ‘home-making’ in Glasgow is enabled through 18 months of fieldwork based on participant observation with two refugee organisations in Glasgow; thirty individual interviews and five group discussions with young refugees; and three participatory projects. In this thesis, I suggest that by exploring belonging through the lens of the everyday it is possible to account for young refugees’ experiences at the intersection of national politics of belonging and an emotional and embodied sense of being ‘at home’. I can thus demonstrate the ambivalent nature of belonging experienced by young refugees living in Glasgow, and render visible the constant tension between exclusionary politics of belonging shaping young people’s everyday spaces and lives, and daily practices of home making and community building. In accounting for young people’s lived realities, this thesis makes an important contribution to current scholarship, which has tended to be policy-focused, seldom providing in-depth insights into young refugees’ everyday experiences of belonging and home. This thesis follows young people’s narratives in three separate empirical chapters, which together account for the complex interplay of different dimensions and scales of belonging in young people’s lives. I begin by discussing limitations and barriers posed by national politics of belonging for young people’s ability to develop a sense of being ‘at home’ in their new environment. Having thus set the context, the remaining two chapters explore a range of different everyday practices through which young people carve out spaces and ‘communities’ of belonging in tension with these limiting circumstances. Whilst overall focusing on everyday experiences of belonging, I conclude by drawing attention to the potential of the everyday to provide a basis for - albeit almost inaudible - claims to belonging.

The entitlement of lesbian, gay and bisexual (LGB) individuals to claim asylum on the basis of their sexual identities has been a contentious matter, as sexual identity was not a ground of claim explicitly recognised under the 1951 Refugee Convention. Nonetheless, the United Kingdom (UK) has incrementally recognised the ability of LGB asylum-seekers to claim such protection over the last twenty years. This thesis undertakes a socio-legal investigation of the British asylum system from the perspective of LGB asylum-seekers. Using evaluation theory, it examines the fairness with which LGB asylum claims are treated in the UK, and the standards to which they are entitled. As the starting point, this thesis explores the legitimacy of using fairness as its standard, and examines the content of this standard. From this, it advances ‘structural principles’ that are used to examine the British asylum system since the UK Supreme Court’s seminal decision in HJ (Iran). Investigating the British asylum system through the framework provided by the structural principles is supported by qualitative data obtained from interviews conducted with legal practitioners, activists, academics, decision-makers and asylum-seekers, and from replies to the Freedom of Information requests addressed to the Home Office. This has helped to conduct a substantial analysis of the British asylum system, as experienced by LGB asylum-seekers today. It offers tangible praise, critique and recommendations with respect to their treatment regarding matters of procedural fairness, i.e., that relating to the asylum process itself, and substantive fairness, i.e., matters pertaining to the outcome of the claim for protection. This thesis submits that intersectionality and the diversity of sexual identity should be at the core of an asylum system that deals fairly with LGB claims for asylum in the UK. LGB asylum-seekers require access to an asylum system that is sensitive and empathetic to their experiences, and which avoids essentialising sexual identities and conducting ‘single-axis’ analyses. The system must operate with flexibility, in line with the unique needs and experiences of LGB asylum-seekers, and with respect for their fundamental rights.

Background: There is a lack of research on loss and coping among conflict-affected populations, especially on women specifically. Moreover, this topic has yet to be explored in the Republic of Georgia. The overall aim of the thesis is to explore resource loss and coping strategies among internally displaced women in Georgia. Methods: A systematic literature review on coping strategies amongst conflict-affected persons in low- and middle-income countries was completed, followed by qualitative field research in Georgia during which 40 semi-structured interviews with internally displaced women were conducted. Hobfoll’s Conservation of Resources Theory (1989) and Skinner et al. (2003)’s coping typology were drawn upon to guide the analysis and interpretation of information gleaned on losses and coping respectively. Findings: The systematic review revealed that gender and exposure to trauma influenced coping efforts. The relationship between coping and mental health outcomes was nuanced, with support seeking and problem solving showing mostly protective effects. Displacement and the loss of property it entailed led to the loss of livelihood, which lead to the loss of social networks, as well as mental and physical health losses. The women reported a range of coping strategies, including problem solving techniques, seeking support from friends, family, and neighbours, escape-avoidance techniques, distraction strategies, and cognitive restructuring approaches. Key differences in the coping behaviours of men and women in the areas of problem solving, support seeking, and escape-avoidance and distraction were evident. Conclusion: Initial losses due to conflict and displacement may lead to subsequent losses unfolding over time, rendering internally displaced persons potentially vulnerable to the effects of conflict years after the formal cessation of hostilities. The participants in this study reported a plethora of strategies employed to offset such losses. A number of research and policy recommendations are provided based on the thesis findings.

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Refugees and asylum seekers are at increased risk of mental health problems because of their exposure to traumatic events that accompany individual or population wide human rights abuses. This review has two distinct aims. The first is to assess the literature related to this group considering the rates of mental health problems reported by studies conducted in both developed and developing countries. This will include a review of factors related to increased mental health problems, with a particular focus on the impact of the post-migration environment. The second aim is to review clinical and ecological service models which have been employed with refugees. The review suggests that the mental health of refugees is negatively affected by both exposure to pre-migration trauma and post-migration factors, such as a long asylum application process, restricted economic opportunity and reduced social support. Whilst the literature on interventions is limited, the review suggests that services should address the broad range of problems experienced by refugees in a holistic manner.

This thesis explores the psychological processes involved in the experiences people encounter when seeking asylum in the UK. Section one presents a narrative literature review of the impact of the social construction of asylum seekers on psychological distress. Within this review, theoretical understandings and research findings are used to explore the creation and maintenance of dominant discourses. The review discusses the influence of dominant discourses on policies of exclusion and suggests how discourses inform the social response towards asylum seekers. It is argued that socially and politically created dominant discourses contribute to legislation, policies and negative social interactions that have a direct impact on the psychological wellbeing of people seeking asylum. It is suggested that psychological services working with people seeking asylum shift their focus from individual to social change. Section two describes research that presents a theoretical understanding of the psychological processes involved in seeking asylum in the UK. The model was constructed using grounded theory methodology applied to data collection and analysis of thirteen semi- structured interviews with seven participants. The sample of people seeking asylum were all survivors of torture in their countries of origin. The findings suggest ways in which experiences whilst seeking asylum may lead to psychological distress. In particular, the model provides insight into the psychological impact of interactions with social and legal systems and structures. Clinical psychology implications are discussed and recommendations are made to improve Home Office procedures. Section three presents a reflective critical review of the process of conducting this research and documents some of the challenges negotiated from its conception to completion. The review also considers how the research has been influenced by the researcher and the emotional impact of undertaking this study on the researcher.

This thesis investigates vulnerability as a concept and as a methodological practice, using a localised analysis as a feminist methodological approach. Drawing from archival texts in the form of media reports published online between 2014 and 2015, it provides an in-depth case study analysis of two individuals who set fire to their bodies, or what is commonly referred to as self-immolation. These are the stories of Leorsin Seemanpillai, a Sri Lankan man who sought asylum in Australia in 2013, and Mariam al-Khawli, a Syrian woman who along with her husband and four children registered as refugees in Lebanon in 2012 after the civil war began in Syria. The tensions in modes of telling stories and challenges in cross-cultural scholarship led me to outline the core components of a vulnerable methodology. This involves discussing what it might mean to explicate and recognise vulnerability in writing. The thesis works with the tension of vulnerability being a universal condition, and the way it is differentially experienced and distributed across particular bodies. As a response, it proposes examining elements or qualities of vulnerability that might emerge as people make lives within located contexts and conditions through altering spatial and temporal registers. This approach focuses on the everyday activities of Seemanpillai and Khawli and situates these alongside, rather than in response to, macro level political systems. By doing so the terms of other elements of subjectivity—agency, intention and action—become unstable. As means to examine this, the thesis proposes the concept of “micro events” to distinguish the space, time and pace of activities drawn out through a longer arc of time. This thesis argues that micro events help to illustrate how elements of vulnerability are interwoven into the textures and materiality of the event’s context and conditions, and the ways in which individuals live within both spectacular and unspectacular, ongoing temporalities.

This research articulates a dialectical theory of the border. It argues that the border should be viewed as a ‘concrete abstraction’ that is at once reified as an ideal object, and extends both spatially and temporally to bear down on the concrete experience of day-to-day life in divisive and often malign ways. The research explores the tragedy of the border for those on whom it bears down and pushes in to destitution, and attempts to challenge this injustice. This is an ethnographic study, and particular focus is given to the experiences of destitute asylum seekers making use of a network of night shelters provided by the Boaz Trust in Manchester, UK. The Boaz Trust is a faith-based organisation that provides accommodation, support, and advocacy to refused asylum seekers in the city and aims to ‘end asylum destitution’. Based on participant observation working in the shelters as a volunteer, time spent living in the shelters, and time alongside destitute asylum seekers on the streets of Manchester, I explore the simultaneous experience of inclusion and exclusion that characterises ‘spaces of asylum’ in the city, and of a ‘weaponised time’ marked by a bifurcated ‘waiting’; where individuals see out each day without the right to work, access public funds, or remain in the UK while also caught up in a longer term, antagonistic, and dysfunctional bureaucratic temporality. I also examine the attempts of volunteers working in the shelters to press against such injustices, exploring these attempts within an understanding of justice as coming in to being through repetitive, arduous and often banal practices of care, and as speculative, fragile and always incomplete.