UK policing lacked a single decision making mode! which explicitly required decision makers to consider values affecting their judgement. Motivation for the applied aspect of this work was to develop such a model. The wider research concerned the identification of the values underpinning policing. Consequently, it was essential to understand how values were engaged with and reflected by policing. Policing here was defined as a profession and a preliminary hypothesis for the research was that a single set of values would cross cut the service. An analysis of the stated police values across services in the UK indicated this was not the case. A review of the literature confirmed that in reality, officers take decisions that require discretion. Whilst this was necessary to ensure legitimacy, little training was offered in the application and understanding of discretion. From the literature it was apparent policing reflected various ethical theories at different times. However the service slanted towards the deontological. This position which argues this was reflected within interviews undertaken for the research. From the data, conclusions were drawn that policing was predicated on the three values of integrity, fairness and respect; values which were also reflected in submissions made by members of internet based professional networks. Interviews and focus groups also established that 'service values', i.e. those which underpinned the generic delivery of policing, were insufficient to guide officers in decision making on the ground. This research demonstrated that policing would benefit from a values-based decision-making model. The model was developed, piloted and evaluated in parallel with research for this thesis. As a result of the study, knowledge has been added to policing through the development of this model. It now forms a component of the recently endorsed National Decision Making Model for policing (ACPO Professional Ethics:National Decision Model 2012) and has become part of the curriculum for accredited firearms and senior leadership training in Scotland. Additionally, integrity and fairness have been included in the Scottish Government's proposed new Oath of Constable. As a result of this research, the author is involved with Government in developing definitions for these terms.

The police service across the United Kingdom (UK) has gone through many fundamental changes since its foundations were laid by the Metropolitan Police Act (Great Britain, 1829). In the 21st century the education and training of new police recruits and their continuous professional development has come under the spotlight for reform. In itial education and training reforms have included a move from central police training sites to local delivery to suit local policing needs and partnerships being created with further and higher education. In these times of austerity the service is also proposing a move away from recruiting individuals and training them to expecting individuals to receive components of their education and training prior to employment. This move to pre-employment education and training (called pre-join by the police service) has also brought other policing roles to the fore of the reform agenda including police staff and special constables. As a professional educator working within higher education, having experienced both operational and support policing roles in a range of contexts, the author is an advocate of the benefits of both career and lifelong learning. Over a number of years the author has strived to provide educational support to the police service either for those who are employed by the police service or alternatively those who are aspiring to work within the sector. A number of these initiatives, both past and present, are listed within the evidence sections of the portfolio and provide a focus for the development of an academic discipline of policing. The opportunities which exist for all of the stakeholders iniJO lved in the initial education and tra ining of the police service are many, varied and at times challenging, but the support and insights which can be provided by higher education can do much to develop this important aspect in the professionalisation of the police service. The contribution of a route map (or framework) will be of value to the individual learner, whether employed or not, the police service as a whole and educational providers, as it will enable all of the stakeholders involved to understand the routes available for new police officer recruits for their initial education and training as they enter the profession. These routes are linked, through higher education, to the complexities of FHEO and OCF frameworks, along with the identification of opportunities for the recognition of APL and the police requirements for the completion of a 'certificate in policing knowledge' (often referred to as the technical certificate) or equivalent and the 'diploma in policing'.

The 1990s saw increasing Government intervention in the police service, as part of its wider promotion of New Public Management. The principal aim was to reduce crime and disorder. The police service implemented a variety of focussed policing styles, against a background of academic scepticism that police action can significantly reduce crime rates. This thesis explores the extent to which policing styles can affect recorded crime. It places this examination in the context of increasing intervention by central government in the police service generally but especially in the development of various policing strategies. The thesis assesses the value and direction of those policing styles in the light of continuing moves towards centralisation. An examination of influences upon police centralisation is undertaken, in particular the work of the Audit Commission and Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Constabulary. The Association of Chief Police Officers is also identified as playing a key role in the erosion of chief constables' independence, to be replaced by a corporate voice. Chief constables' choices of policing style are considered. It is found that these are more likely to be a product of personal preference than of local socioeconomic and geographic factors. The disadvantage to ‘local needs’ arising from centralisation, may be minimal. The second strand of research identifies the crime trends associated with each policing style after several years of practice. The reductions in crime associated with the use of policing styles are found to be marginal when measured at police force level, but more significant at local level. Current performance indicators are inappropriate for their purpose, being insufficiently sensitive to assess accurately, the results of crime reduction activity. The increased use of qualitative indicators may be a useful approach. The thesis then examines recent developments in centrally-preferred policing styles, which occurred during the course of research. The rise of ‘neighbourhood’ policing is traced and the prospects for its success are found to be fragile. The thesis concludes that an increased emphasis upon the role of the police as service providers, may be more useful than the narrower crime-fighting perspective, driven by blunt, quantitative performance indicators, which held sway in the 1990s.

Long hours and shift work have been associated with cardiometabolic disease risk. Despite diet being an established modifiable risk factor, few studies have examined how dietary behaviours vary in relation to working hours. The aim of this thesis was to investigate the relationship between working hours and diet quality with markers of cardiometabolic health. Cross-sectional analyses were conducted using data from The Airwave Health Monitoring Study - a British police occupational cohort (n=5,849). Number of weekly working hours was determined from questionnaire data. The Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension score was calculated using 7-day diet data to measure diet quality. Markers of cardiometabolic health included: adiposity (body mass index, waist circumference and body fat), blood pressure, cholesterol, HbA1c and C-reactive protein. Sub-group analyses were conducted in participants with available shift work data (based on police radio records) (n=2,323). As part of this thesis a revised food diary and shift work questionnaire were developed and piloted for use in future studies. Male employees (n=3,332) working >49hrs per week (vs. 35-40hrs) were more likely to have a dietary pattern associated with elevated cardiometabolic risk. There was a positive dose-response relationship across working hours (!35-40, 41-48, 49-54, !55hrs per week) with markers of adiposity in male employees. Diet quality did not modify this association. Based on limited shift work data: night workers (vs. day) were found to consume a higher quantity of sugar-sweetened beverages. However shift work was not associated with increased cardiometabolic risk. This thesis suggests a sex specific positive association between weekly working hours and adiposity that is independent of established risk factors. Temporal eating pattern and previous shift work data collected using the revised food diary and shift questionnaire will be important to future studies exploring the relationship between diet, work hours and health.

The changing landscape of police-faith relations in the UK presents challenges to policing policy and practice relating to issues of prejudice, hate crime, extremism and terrorism. Academic attention in this area has largely focussed on Muslim and Jewish communities in the context of hate crime and terrorism, yet increasing diversity and community hostility to ‘difference’ requires a broader lens through which to assess police-faith relations. This case study draws on qualitative interviews with police officers and staff, self-identified ‘faith community leaders’ and community members across Baha’i, Christian, Hindu, Jewish, Muslim, Quaker and Sikh faiths. The findings demonstrate a prevailing perception of the police as ‘uncultured’, fuelled by limited engagement with faith communities and the framing of police-faith relations as an issue of diversity associated with risk. This issue is exacerbated by systemic dominant cultures in policing which value ‘catching criminals’ and devalue the ‘soft’ skills and roles associated with building relationships across diverse groups. The ‘cultural work’ of the police in the recognition of some social identities and groups over others is shown to impact upon perceptions of procedural justice and legitimacy in policing across faith groups. The findings highlight limitations in leadership and strategy to develop police-community relationships, which specifically impacts upon faith groups at the periphery of police awareness and protection. This study shows that interrelated issues of police cultures, prejudice and faith hate crime are evident in a county where ‘diversity’ is less visible and argues for faith to become more explicit in assessments of police legitimacy beyond large, multicultural cities.

The six papers contained within this thesis relate to the study of Wellbeing in the UK police between 2011 and 2015. Holistically, the papers presented here cohere to fulfil the research objectives by addressing three general questions: 1. To what extent are resilience interventions effective? 2. To what extent does wellbeing manifest itself within the UK police service? 3. To what extent is wellbeing managed, shaped and influenced through leadership? This research has made five significant and original contributions to knowledge and practice: Firstly, it has firmly established why a study of this nature is called for in policing. There has been no previous work carried out on resilience training efficacy in UK policing prior to this, and as such our understanding of how to create a conducive environment with the right leadership approach to address wellbeing issues was hitherto limited. Secondly, having mapped the current terrain in respect of wellbeing in policing, this research has found, labelled and reported on a previously hidden phenomena, that of Leaveism. Leaveism fills a lacuna in current thinking regarding behavioural responses to being unwell or experiencing workload overload; and how that impacts in the workplace. Thirdly, this research has contributed to workplace practice; understanding how these phenomena play out and can be managed operationally illustrates the applied nature of this study, contributing to evidence based practice within the police. Fourthly, many of the findings contained within this research have been influential across policing nationally, providing frameworks for other police forces to work from. Finally, and most significantly, this thesis has tested and reported on resilience training efficacy, concluding that it results in significantly better workplace outcomes for employees. This thesis contains papers that have been peer reviewed and published in academic journals. With a strong emphasis on practical workplace application this research has provided a valid and reliable evidence base for police forces to act upon. This work has radically changed both our (police service) understanding, and our ability to act on the phenomena detailed in this thesis. Policing in the UK is changing monumentally. The findings presented in this thesis have made a significant contribution to both the organisational changes within UK Policing; and to the effective management of those changes.

When I started the project. I was Chief Inspector and the Head of Training for the Ministry of Defence (MoD), Police Training Centre (PTC) at Wethersfield in Essex. As the PTC was considered to be at the centre of the organisation, my role was seen to be that of a change agent. Therefore, I was an inside researcher. This raised two crucial methodological issues for the study. To ensure that the study was objective, reliable and valid, I had to take different approaches. Firstly, as the Head of Training, my role allowed me to quickly get to the core of the problem and I was able to generate extensive amount of crucial data. This challenged the organisational values and the power base of a hierarchical institute. The effect was complex, it meant that my learning was captured in a "personal way". This study produced Volume I, which explains the design, test, implementation of the new appraisal process and my learning. It also demonstrates my capabilities as an inside researcher who is able to shape major organisational change. Secondly, I had to use extensive collaborative approach to counteract the possibility of subjectivity which I encountered as an inside researcher. The collaborative approach produced Volume II, which is the study's tangible outcome. Volume II makes a professional impact on the whole of the Ministry of Defence Police (MDP) with a significant change in the organisations appraisal process. Further, as advocated by Bell (1997), being an inside researcher I had to maintain strict ethical standards at all times.

This dissertation critically reviews three community safety partnerships. It contributes to learning by using new data to examine some of the enduring challenges faced by the partnerships as they respond to the changing socio-political context. These multi-agency bodies primarily involve the police and local authority, along with the fire service, and primary care trust as statutory partners, and other criminal justice agencies. Although multi-agency work has a long history, Community Safety Partnerships originated most notably within the Morgan Report published in 1991. The principles outlined within the Morgan Report were subsequently embodied in the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 which itself attempted to formalise and standardise community safety structures and practice. The research has involved fifty-eight in-depth interviews with key stakeholders, and observation of twenty-nine meetings held in Birmingham, Cambridge and Lincoln. These three areas were chosen to facilitate comparison in terms of the size of the city, local authority structure, level of urbanisation and concomitant social deprivation, and levels of crime. My research suggests four key challenges. The first of these concerns the development of structures within the post Crime and Disorder Act 1998 period. The purpose, structure and processes varied between areas. Birmingham, for example, struggled to develop an appropriate structure because of its size and the devolution of local authority services. In all three areas, however, those interviewed noted a lack of decisionmaking and implementation which raised questions about the purpose of the partnerships beyond being 'talking shops' . The second challenge concerns the changing social context for new partnership developments. For example, the two-tier local authority structure in Cambridge and Lincoln posed particular problems. Moreover, in all three areas community involvement appeared to be symbolic rather than 'real'; this inhibited developments and emphasised some of the difficulties inherent in communitariarusm. The third challenge relates to funding and performance monitoring arrangements. Here, practitioners noted the influence of bureaucracy and 'short-termism'. The early 'honeymoon period' where there was relatively little government interference (Phillips et al., 2002) had ended and the partnerships had clearly experienced increasing managerialist pressure, but in spite of this pressure, evidence of longer-term success remained scarce. As outlined in the Audit Commission (2002), practitioners in the three partnerships acknowledged that with the exception of specific initiatives, the post 1998 developments had yet to make a significant impact on crime and disorder or that at best, they remained unclear about the impact. Such uncertainty about impact could be a consequence of the difficulties of measuring performance, of course, due to difficulties in accessing relevant data and information about community safety initiatives. Fourth, there appear to be inherent difficulties in assuming that 'many agencies are better than one' in addressing community safety (Liddle, 2001). An 'ideology of unity' (Crawford and Jones, 1995), however, may mask underlying tensions. My research revealed tensions at different levels, including tensions between the local partnerships and national government. This is not to say that local practitioners lacked autonomy, however, as they were able to resist some of the governmental constraints. But interagency relationships appeared to be underpinned by power struggles which served to undermine joined-up community safety practice; in particular, the struggles raised questions about who was responsible for community safety in each area. The challenges for the partnerships, as revealed in this dissertation, suggest that the recommendations within the Morgan Report of 1991 have not been addressed nor has the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 standardised community safety structures and practice. The notion of 'responsibilisation' (Garland, 2001) through decentralised governance is clearly a complex issue; the Government appears to wish to both 'steer' and 'row' each of the partnerships and this leaves practitioners uncertain of their own role. This is one example of the contradiction between the 'reality' and symbolism of community safety practice which seems to underpin the partnerships.

The previous UK Coalition government (2010-2015) made significant efforts to professionalise the police service in England and Wales. One of their approaches was to require police students to study at university, before becoming police officers. It has been hypothesised that requiring police students to study at university may ensure that professionalism develops within these students/officers, with the higher education received. At the same time as developing professionalism within these officers it has been suggested some of the negative aspects of police culture may diminish. Whether or not these hopes are borne out by university training of police students was the central research question for this project. This original research examined socialisation and culture of police students, within a UK university institution. It evolved by utilising reflexive grounded theory to examine the student perception of the police service, using questionnaires, focus groups and content analysis of completed essays, by Foundation in Policing Degree students. In summary the findings of this research suggested that university training of police students may not have the desired effect on professionalism, as police culture appears to develop regardless of the setting. Further to this, minority ethnic students continue to report being less attracted to the police as a career choice. A number of reasons are suggested for these findings and future recommendations are set out. Ultimately, this research concludes that the way a police officer is trained and/or educated requires reviewing, as simply moving the process to a university setting does not automatically deliver the intended outcomes, and in fact can result in the police culture simply flourishing elsewhere.