This thesis analyses borders as sites of struggle in everyday life. Drawing on critical approaches across disciplines including international relations, security studies, citizenship, border, and migration studies, it argues for a perspective on borders as embodied encounters in everyday life as both a method and ethos of critical analysis. Drawing on empirical research in the contexts of the UK and Calais, this thesis presents an account of borders as everyday practices of segregation. In highlighting the everydayness of borders it points to the ordinary and often messy ways in which borders are made real in people's lives and also come undone. Framing the border in terms of segregation it traces how ongoing global histories of discrimination, domination, and racism underlying contemporary nation-state border-making are reproduced in everyday contexts and ordinary encounters in which we all become complicit. At the same time, this thesis elaborates a post-Wittgensteinian 'grammatical reading' (Pin-Fat, 2010; 2013; 2016) in order to trace how key debates within prominent critical approaches to borders, migration, sovereignty, and (bio)politics continue to be framed by the metaphysical seduction of nation-states and their borders as ontologically 'hard'. In doing so, it argues that several critical approaches risk reproducing the very borders they are often committed to challenging and risk undermining the possibility of solidarity and struggle. Instead, in turning to everyday life, this thesis proposes to read the ethical politics of borders and migration as ontologically 'soft': that is, contingent, socially constructed, and ordinary. Whilst this in no way makes borders less powerfully real or violent such a perspective, this thesis argues, provides critical insight into the politics of borders as sites and practices of struggle as well as into the ordinary ethics of 'migrant solidarity'.

Ensuring high ethical standards for British Private Security Companies (PSCs) and their contractors is a major concern for government, civil society, and industry stakeholders. This concern is currently being addressed through regulatory efforts; however, evidence suggests that even if external monitoring and regulatory systems were improved, the ethical climates within individual companies and the actions of immediate supervisors would still have more influence over contractors’ behaviour than written regulations. This thesis identifies and analyzes how PSC leaders at multiple levels of decision-making authority can influence the ethical behaviour of contractors in places where governments and NGOs have limited monitoring or disciplinary power. Some discussion is included of how other leaders from client and training organizations might also leverage leadership skills and behaviours to exert an additional degree of influence. In accordance with Charmaz’s (2006) constructivist grounded theory methodology, data was collected via a series of semistructured interviews with PSC leaders throughout PSC hierarchies. Interview data was then analysed using the ‘constant comparative method’ and ‘theoretical integration.’ Alternate sources of data, including existing leadership theories and PSC literature, were used to triangulate the data obtained during interviews. Sources of information external to the private security industry were used to provide additional support for the assertions of this thesis after the interview analyses were complete. The end result of this thesis’ analyses is new information that helps to explain how, why, and to what extent leadership influences the ethical behaviour of British private security contractors in hostile environments. As such, this thesis makes original contributions to the fields of both leadership and PSC research. First, this thesis provides new information that suggests specific leadership skills and behaviours that impact on the ethical behaviour of personnel within a unique type of organization: Private Security Companies. Secondly, this thesis helps to inform contemporary debates about civil society’s ability to ensure that PSC personnel behave according to social and ethical norms; historically, such debates have not been informed by leadership research. This thesis concludes with a discussion of the wider relevancy of this research’s findings.

The commercial manned guarding sector of private security continues to grow, outnumbering public policing. Underlying drivers include government austerity measures leading to more reliance on the private sector, outsourcing, crime and the fear of crime. Unfortunately, the sector is often unable to attract the best candidates since it is rarely viewed as a viable career option. Internationally, private security has been subject to increasing regulation for the purpose of raising standards and, in turn, public confidence. However, the sector lacks the key elements of a structured career path, and there have been few endeavors to establish the foundations of one to support the professionalism of private security. This study assesses the current picture within the sector and seeks to identify the elements required to develop the foundations of a structured career path. The research involved a qualitative method, adopting a grounded theory approach. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with private security sector representatives internationally. The study established that structured career paths do not currently exist, with a number of barriers inhibiting progression. The research identified the need both for progression based on training and education, and the sector to strive to be a profession of its own representing the key element required as the foundation to devising career pathways.

This thesis is a comparative criminological study comparing the private policing and management of security of private/hybrid space in South Korea and United Kingdom. It is based upon two comparable shopping malls and draws upon thirty four semi-structured interviews of security officers, supervisors, managers and police officers; thirty nine structured interviews of security officers at both malls; one hundred structured interviews of shoppers at each mall; and one hundred hours of observation at each mall. Increasingly in both South Korea and the United Kingdom the public feel a greater need to protect themselves from crimes because of declining police resources. As a consequence the police are finding it difficult to meet the demands of the public and organisations in terms of crime prevention and the provision of a visible uniformed presence, amongst other. Society demands more effective public security control than what the government can offer. To better respond to these needs private security firms have filled the gap and areas of large private/hybrid space such as shopping malls have been one of the prime examples. However, there have been a few studies of the private security industry in such areas in the UK and in Korea and in no internationally comparative research conducted of shopping malls at all. This study starts to fill that gap by analysing the contribution of private security to the policing of of private space, which is open to the public in shopping malls of the two different countries. Secondly, the research explores and compares the systems of regulation, licensing, legal powers, training and working conditions, amongst others. Third the thesis explores real functions, statuses and image of private security officers and police officers, examining their daily operations, at the two case studies. The research identifies a number of findings, particularly around the role and orientation of officers, noting a strong 'service men' culture amongst Korean officers, distinct from the United Kingdom officers who are more security and policing orientated. It also finds private security officers and their contribution are still considered unimportant by the public and this is linked to their governance, lack of legal power, poor level of training and low educational levels, although this did vary between the two countries. These issues also impact on the relationship with the police who in South Korea are less likely to entrust private security officers with policing work compared to the UK. This research also sheds light on the issues of private security industry regulation, legal powers, poor working conditions, the level of training and occupational risks and the research will hopefully contribute to the growth of comparative research on private security. Therefore, this thesis makes significant recommendations to improve the management of security in shopping mall as a great investment, better training, working conditions and regulation etc.

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The Saudi Border Guard (SBG) undertakes a major responsibility for securing more than 800km of the Kingdom borders, which are surrounded by 14 countries; 10 of them with direct land borders, and four which are separated by the Red Sea and Gulf of Arabia. In addition to the location of the most holy Muslim places of Makkah and al Madina. All these factors make the responsibilities of the Saudi Border Guard (SBG) to be difficult tasks, especially with the increasing activities of smuggling, illegal immigration, illegal trade, terrorism and piracy. In addition there is the need to protect the territorial in terms of fishing, and leisure and to provide guidance, help, and rescue of people and ships that may be in distress, in Saudi sea waters and in the adjacent international sea transport lines, in both the Red Sea and the Gulf of Arabia. Obviously the huge number of acts of piracy in recent years, especially off the Somalia coast, must be part of a new era in the Middle East future. Thus for these and other reasons an efficient fleet of SBG vessels must be employed. There are increasing numbers of people who try to cross the Saudi borders illegally in order to find jobs, to visit the holy places, to engage in illegal trade, or for other purposes. This is especially so owing to the poverty of some of the regional and other countries with high populations (for example the SBG stopped 37,000 people attempting to cross the Saudi borders from Yemen, on the first 20 days of Ramadan, 2009, according to the SBG archives), as well as due to regional political conflicts. Thus there is a need for a strong capability not only in terms of quantity but also in quality of the SBG future. In this project a survey has been carried out in the form of questionnaire and interviews to SBG members in order to ascertain the degree of the shortfalls in the recent SBG fleet and to provide inputs to proposed specifications for the SBG future fleet. However this expected result of this survey is not completely effectiveness fitness for purpose but help to provide usefully information to the designer in order to define the proposed requirement. In addition there are considerable navigation difficulties, around the Saudi coasts in both the Red Sea and the Gulf of Arabia. This is especially so along the Red Sea coast, which is considered as being one of the most dangerous of seas for navigation. The Saudi territorial waters along the Red Sea are characterised by extensive coral reefs, which cause considerable difficulties for local navigation, especially for free ranging Coast Guard Vessels. There are no accurate maps for navigation along the coast of the Red Sea, nor of the random spread of the coral reefs. All of these factors must require the SBG to create a comprehensive plan for the determination excellent ship specifications in order to meet with the SBG mission requirement in the future fleet, and in addition to make use of newly developed technology for efficiently searching and monitoring borders. Geographic political forecasts and new developments in technology must be taken into consideration during the first stage of planning to develop and define the suitable specifications of vessels the future fleet for the SBG. Internal studies within the SBG as well as studies within SA as a whole must be concentrated in the official members of the SBG and related government officials, with the task to continuously survey and discuss all aspects not only of teaching, to achieve the required result, in the way to plan for the next 20 to 30 years of the development and operations of the SBG fleet. This study looks at the overall acquisition process for the provision of the new craft that will be necessary for the Saudi Border Guard to be able to accomplish its future missions. This will involve ensuring that the new vessels will be able to effectively and efficiently undertake the many and diverse operational tasks that will face the SBG over the next 20 to 30 years. Given that uncertainties will exist and develop in the foreseeable future, such new vessels must have a degree of flexibility in meeting their operational requirements and be supported by a shore staff organisation that anticipates and responds to technical problems and developments as and when they occur.

Existing weapon detection systems such as metal detectors and X-ray baggage scanners have many drawbacks. While metal detectors can only detect metallic objects, X-ray scanners are unsafe for use on passengers. Also, these systems can only scan people within a short range. These limitations of detecting potentially harmful objects have led to tragic events such as the 9/11 attack on the world trade centre and the 2008 terrorist attack in Mumbai. Development of more advanced security systems would help in curbing such terrorist attacks. These systems could also be used to help security officials in tackling knife and gun related crimes in the streets. The aim of this research is to develop a concealed weapon detection system using acoustic waves. Ideally, the system would have large standoff distance, should be cost-effective and easy to manufacture and would be able to detect both metal and non-metallic weapons. Different techniques such as acoustic signature, resonance acoustic spectroscopy and acoustic imaging were analysed. Acoustic signature techniques identify the target by comparing the acoustic waves reflected by the target to a database of previously recorded acoustic reflections. Resonance acoustic spectroscopy was used on the data acquired using both experimental measurements and Finite Element simulations. A series of resonant frequencies from the acoustic waves reflected by the concealed target were extracted using this technique. This series of resonant frequencies that are unique to the target were used to identify the target. Acoustic camera was used to experimentally record the acoustic reflection from different targets. This was then used to develop images of concealed targets. These tests were performed using commercially available array speaker systems. The probability of improving these results using a better designed ultrasonic or acoustic array speaker system was analysed. This was done by changing different array design parameters and obtaining a highly focused acoustic beam. The results from the experimental tests and Finite Element simulations proved the possibility of using acoustic waves for concealed weapon detection. In the acoustic signature measurements, the frequency spectra of the reflected acoustic waves were shown to be different for different targets. The results from resonance acoustic spectroscopy showed structural resonant frequencies in the frequency spectra that corresponded to the natural frequency of the target. Using acoustic camera kit the image of the concealed target was identified. The array results showed the formation of focused beams for different array configurations. The results showed the formation of grating lobes and side lobes when the inter-element gap became larger than the wavelength of sound waves at the excitation frequency. Finally, a program using neural network was developed to demonstrate how the natural frequencies from the target could be used to identify them. This research work provides a proof of concept of different acoustic wave-based detection and imaging techniques. It has shown the possibility of detecting concealed targets at standoff distances. Using parametric arrays highly focused acoustic or ultrasonic beams could be generated which could be focused on a person suspected of carrying a weapon in a crowded environment. The sound waves reflected back could be analysed using the resonance acoustic spectroscopic technique or one could use the acoustic camera to generate images of targets in real-time. The use of acoustic waves would also help in keeping the cost and complexity of the equipment to a minimum. It also ensures that the public is not exposed to any harmful radiation. The techniques described in this thesis would significantly support the development of a commercially viable, robust acoustic waves based concealed weapon detection system.

As a result of the 9/11 terror attacks, a new and far-reaching form of security governance has emerged within the United States under the heading of 'homeland security'. While this mode of security has brought with it a range of domestic counter-terrorism efforts, such as new methods of preparedness in the event of attacks on American cities, as well as mechanisms to seize and cut off terrorist assets, it has also predominantly been oriented towards the development of a new legal, institutional and technological regime responsible for the management and risk assessment of individual identity and the identities of foreign nationals passing through U.S. borders. Although this mode of security provides new powers as well as more flexible and collaborative methods for U.S. customs, law enforcement and intelligence to address the threat of terrorism, it has also created political controversy. This controversy has rested upon the perception that homeland security methods embody an unchecked extension of executive power negatively impacting the rights and liberties of the individuals that these very security techniques were established to protect. In order to interrogate this controversy and analyse how this new form of security performs within an extended field of sovereign power, this thesis takes into account the laws, policies and technologies – biometric, datamining, database – that shape this new form of security at the border. This new form of security arguably not only embodies a mobilisation and empowerment of U.S. intelligence and law enforcement agencies which understand terrorism as catastrophic and generational, but it can fundamentally be seen as creating a new infrastructure that allows U.S. security institutions to become more 'informationally' aware of the identities of individuals entering and exiting the country. How U.S. security institutions access such identity information, along with how this data is used, is what constitutes the new social and political reality at the border.

Anticorruption agencies (ACAs) have drawn scholarly attention in recent times. While authors focused predominately on studying ACAs’ performance and their contribution to the reduction of corruption, ACAs’ enforcement – as a process that precedes policy outcome - has remained understudied so far. This thesis seeks to contribute to filling this gap, by exploring the enforcement choices of five ACAs from three Western Balkans’ countries – Serbia, Macedonia, and Croatia, in the period 2001-2012. The thesis utilises three theoretical accounts in order to explore the determinants of the enforcement of the five ACAs’ enforcement. These are organisational, temporal, and leadership based accounts. Organisational accounts include de-jure independence and agency resources as key factors, temporal accounts include life-cycle and political-cycle as determinants of agency behaviour and, finally, leadership-based accounts highlight the role of leaders, i.e. human agency, in shaping agency enforcement. While failing to lend support for the organisational and temporal accounts, the empirical analysis offers evidence in support of the leadership based account. Overriding the organisational and temporal boundaries and constraints, the ‘personal’ (human) factor turns out to have been the key driver of the analysed ACAs’ enforcement. The thesis also sets out to investigate whether the ACA model has implications for ACAs’ enforcement. The first – the preventive ACA model - is argued to be able to exhibit the harshest forms of enforcement even if the organisational factors are weak. The other - the suppressive ACA model - is hypothesised to be able to exert the harshest forms of enforcement only under strong organisational factors. The empirical analysis yields support to this hypothesis. It is shown in the thesis that the two ACA models provide for different reputational opportunities and risks, factors that crucially shape the enforcement choices.