Studies in the UK and elsewhere have identified that flooding comes with diverse impacts, ranging from significant financial costs (tangible) to social (intangible) impacts on households. However, it is not feasible for government spending on structural flood defences to adequately protect all at risk properties. Hence, the need for homeowners to take action in the form of investing in property level flood risk adaptation (PLFRA) measures to protect their properties has since been the subject of debate. However, the take-up of PLFRA measures remains low, due to factors such as financial constraints, aesthetics, emotional issues, and a lack of information on the actual cost and financial benefit of investing in the measures. Notably, previous research in this area has failed to include the value of intangible impacts such as health effects, meaning that the existing models do not reflect the full benefits of PLFRA measures. This in part is due to the inherent difficulty in monetising such intangible impacts. Nevertheless, evidence from the literature, indicates that knowledge of such impacts may be important in determining whether to invest in PLFRA measures. Based on a synthesis of the literature, a conceptual framework of the costs and benefits of PLFRA measures was developed. Data was collected through a questionnaire survey of homeowners who had experienced flood damage to their properties during the 2007 summer flood event. This data was combined with secondary data of the actual cost of reinstatement incurred in the aftermath of the 2007 flood event. By analysing these two data sets, the additional costs of resistance and resilience measures for four property types were established. The value of the intangible benefits of investing in PLFRA measures was found to be £653 per household per year representing an increase of 8% for resistance and 9% for resilience measures. Decision support lookup tables (DSLT) were developed so that homeowners can determine the cost effectiveness of PLFRA measures as pertaining to individual buildings; insurers can assess the level of potential financial benefit of adopting PLFRA measures by their customers, and perhaps offer incentives by way of premium reduction to encourage homeowners to invest in the measure. Flood risk assessment surveyors can determine the benefit cost ratio of taking up of PLFRA measures for their individual clients; thereby, enhancing the robustness of their professional advice. Most importantly, the DSLT has the potential to complement Government‘s effort in encouraging homeowners to invest in PLFRA measures.

This doctoral study seeks the answer to the question of 'How has the implementations of post-earthquake reconstruction affected rural communities and changed the built environment of rural eastern Turkey?' with reference to the socio-economic and physical vulnerability of rural population in the Eastern Anatolian Region. The region has the highest risk of earthquake exposure in the country and the past experiences showed that rural people in the region lack of capacity to cope with the impacts of earthquakes. In consideration of the vulnerable built environment of rural settlements in the region, the state implements housing projects seismic-resistant. However, the projects are standardised and after the delivery of houses, no evaluation is conducted by authorities in terms of learning to what extent people are satisfied and how they recover overall in time. In this regard, this study attempts to address this gap and evaluates housing projects and beneficiaries' recovery in a time frame from 1992 to 2012. The projects in Erzincan, Erzurum and Van are the case studies in the study region. The data collection consists of 240 questionnaires and 35 interviews conducted with the beneficiaries. A number of demographic, socio-economic and physical indicators are examined through statistical analyses and the interviews are used for verbatim quotations. According to the results, the beneficiaries are overall highly satisfied with the houses. The strength of satisfaction was measured at the highest for the dwellers in Van and at the lowest for the dwellers in Erzincan, which can be linked to the variety of the house plans implemented in Van. The repayment model of house-loan is inappropriate for beneficiaries since most do not have regular income, as the interviewees emphasised. With regard to livelihood, the rural people in the region are becoming less agriculture-dependent and more interested in jobs with regular income and insurance

This thesis examines contemporary challenges within “natural” disaster risk, vulnerability, resettlement and disaster management in Cameroon. Its empirical focus is on the experiences of the Lake Nyos and Lake Monoum gas disasters which occurred in the mid- 1980s, and on the processes that surrounded resettlement and subsequent relocation of affected populations. The underlying aim is to understand the social context of risk and vulnerability, and consider how such knowledge can be integrated in the development planning process of Cameroon. The research adopts the position, now common in the political ecology of hazards, that disasters occur due to the interaction between human and physical factors, and that disaster risk reduction measures should incorporate socioeconomic and socio-cultural problems. The thesis combines evidence from questionnaire surveys, interviews, documents and field observations, in order to produce a detailed understanding of the processes at work. Results are presented in study populations; three that were affected by the gas disasters (the displaced victims of the Lake Nyos disaster presently living in resettlement camps, former displaced victims of the Lake Nyos disaster who have moved back to the disaster zone and the residents in and around Lake Monoum who were not resettled and have not moved from the disaster area) and a set of key stakeholders involved in disaster management in Cameroon. Most disaster research in Cameroon focuses on the technical aspects of natural hazards/disasters. There is conspicuous lack of research or published materials that addresses the social aspects of natural disasters. Research findings show that Cameroon’s disaster management framework has been oriented to address mostly the crisis phase of natural disasters. This view is confirmed by the case study results, which reveal that the management of the Lake Nyos disaster focused on the immediate aftermath of the disaster, without contingency planning for the displaced survivors. Results also reveal that the resettlement of disaster survivors has created social conditions that have led to their relocation back to the disaster zone. Results regarding several risk-related themes strongly indicate that disaster managers in the government sector generally perceive risk from a technical, scientific or physical perspective. Past experience and socio-cultural factors appear to be more responsible for risk perception and attitudes to risk in the disaster affected populations. The relocation of the Lake Nyos disaster survivors back to the disaster area and the nonrelocation of Njindoum residents within the vicinity of Lake Monoum indicate that both lakes are not considered to be a prohibitively serious threat. Analysis of relocation decisions shows that motivations for relocation are caused mainly by social, economic and cultural factors, which arise from resettlement. Based on the research findings, a new disaster model is presented that shows the linkages, influences and interaction between Relocation Decisions and Disaster Management, Risk Perception and Vulnerability.

This thesis investigates the root causes of the social vulnerability of Bam and examines the role played by the evolution of institutions in the post-earthquake reconstruction period in shaping resilience. Through studying the reconstruction process of Bam for six years (from 2004 to 2010) the research explains the dynamics of institutional interactions of different agents and organizations involved in the reconstruction. A synthesis of literature on vulnerability and resilience enables the thesis to position post-disaster reconstruction as an opportunity to alter those institutional factors that had generated vulnerability, and to move the trajectory of institutional evolution towards a more resilient society. In particular the thesis focuses on the role played by the formation and character of social capital and its transformation or stability from pre- to post-disaster contexts. -- The Bam earthquake occurred at an important political juncture in Iranian history allowing this kind of analysis on institutional structures which have since retreated. Following the earthquake of 2003 in Bam the central government of Iran immediately created a group of professionals and administrative officials to design the relief and reconstruction programme. One of the main stated objectives of the designed plan was to involve people in the reconstruction process. In practice, however, people became marginalized from key decision-making fora. The absence of local people’s voices in the design of the reconstruction plan increased the vulnerability of some groups like renters and widows. Further, the approach negatively affected the Bamis’ sense of belonging exacerbated through different factors like influx of workers from all over the country to do labour work, or the damage to palm trees (a cultural touchstone in Bam and economically important resource) during the reconstruction process.

This thesis analyses how floods are managed in two European countries, focusing in particular on the role of risk instruments within emerging flood management regimes. Studying flood management is not only relevant because of a rise in frequency and severity of flood events in the 1990s and 2000s, and the expectation of a further increase due to a changing climate. It is also a particularly suitable issue to enrich our understanding of how institutions shape risk-based governance. -- Examining how institutions shape risk-based governance challenges and refines existing contributions on the rise of risk-based governance. In the literature, this rise is associated with arguments of the functional rationality of risk-based governance, in response to the particular problem of flooding, and to the wider need to deal with challenges to states as effective and legitimate problem-solvers. These arguments suggest a universal appeal and adoption of risk-based governance. -- This assumption is challenged by undertaking a comparative analysis of the flood regimes of Germany and England in the 1990s and 2000s. Germany and England are compared because, actors in both countries have, following major flood events in the 1990s and 2000s, recognised the importance of risk instruments for their emerging, more anticipatory and adaptive approaches to flood management, and are seemingly subject to similar pressures on the state actors to become more effective and accountable. At the same time, they display substantive differences in their institutions. -- In a first, descriptive step, using the risk regulation regime approach (Hood et al 2004), it will be demonstrated that risk instruments differ along three dimensions in the two countries’ regimes.

Tehran, the capital of Iran, is located in an area of high seismic risk and seismologists believe that a strong earthquake will affect Tehran in the near future. With a population of nearly eight and a half million, it is estimated that probably a large number of people would lose their lives. Given this unfortunate possibility, and that the majority of buildings are built directly next to one another, any lateral force on one building could have a destructive impact on the others, on the network of connections and on the neighbourhood as a whole. A lack of open spaces in many residential and commercial areas will make immediate post-event organised responses, coordination, decision-making and resourcing difficult and challenging. These spaces may be considered for allocation of tasks such as providing emergency shelter, water and medical supplies, public health and sanitation, and housing replacement. Therefore, the question is whether Tehran is ready for the challenges, disaster mitigation and preparedness, response and recovery. This research is focused on the interaction between physical systems and social systems to lessen societal exposure to the risks of earthquakes. In doing so, first the approaches to integrated disaster and urban planning from other contexts were studied. After the selection of an assessment tool, the spatial, physical and social vulnerability of Tehran and the case study area were studied followed by the analysis of their risks and capacity. A detailed field study within the Khazaneh neighbourhood included estimating earthquake damage and casualties based on probable damage ratio and population distribution, and studying and developing criteria for identification and location of safety evacuation routes, shelter and other emergency utilities (hospitals, fire stations, etc.) in urban areas. It was concluded that earthquake protection systems are now a critical issue for the enhancement of seismic reliability of this urban region. Preparing disaster reduction strategies in Tehran require comprehensive disaster measures to be implemented in urban development plans, open space designs, urban management and the building industry to enhance disaster prevention capabilities and to minimise and control disasters throughout the Greater Tehran Area.

Recent emergency response operations to Mass Casualty Incidents (MCIs) have been criticised for a lack of coordination, implying that there is clear potential for response operations to be improved and for corresponding benefits in terms of the health and well-being of those affected by such incidents. In this thesis, the use of mathematical modelling, and in particular optimisation, is considered as a means with which to help improve the coordination of MCI response. Upon reviewing the nature of decision making in MCIs and other disaster response operations in practice, this work demonstrates through an in-depth review of the available academic literature that an important problem has yet to be modelled and solved using an optimisation methodology. This thesis involves the development of such a model, identifying an appropriate task scheduling formulation of the decision problem and a number of objective functions corresponding to the goals of the MCI response decision makers. Efficient solution methodologies are developed to allow for solutions to the model, and therefore to the MCI response operation, to be found in a timely manner. Following on from the development of the optimisation model, the dynamic and uncertain nature of the MCI response environment is considered in detail. Highlighting the lack of relevant research considering this important aspect of the problem, the optimisation model is extended to allow for its use in real-time. In order to allow for the utility of the model to be thoroughly examined, a complementary simulation is developed and an interface allowing for its communication with the optimisation model specified. Extensive computational experiments are reported, demonstrating both the danger of developing and applying optimisation models under a set of unrealistic assumptions, and the potential for the model developed in this work to deliver improvements in MCI response operations.

Disaster risk reduction (DRR) should be underpinned by multi-hazard assessments that integrate community and scientific knowledge. Humanitarian and development non-governmental organisations (NGOs) are key implementers of DRR, but there is little guidance for them regarding the requirements of a multi-hazard approach. Using mainly qualitative methods, a conceptual framework for multi-hazards is proposed, which emphasises the interrelations between hazards as well as the need to address more than one hazard. This framework is compared to existing NGO hazard assessment methods at Head Office and in the Philippines (a multi-hazard hotspot), along with a case study of the 2006 Typhoon Reming lahars disaster at Mayon Volcano. Throughout the research, the role of scientific knowledge is explored. Interviewees assume that their community-based assessments ‘toolkits’ capture multi-hazards, but these are constrained by preconceptions related to DRR, the confined temporal and spatial scales of analysis and the emphasis on community knowledge. Particularly amongst Head Office NGOs, the need for science and a more anticipatory approach is driven by climate change adaptation rather than DRR. However, the Reming lahars disaster emphasises that DRR strategies must anticipate, prepare for and respond to simultaneous hazards, whilst accounting for how previous hazards might amplify or alleviate the anticipated event. The disaster emphasises the limits of community knowledge but also those of the available science, along with the need for good communication between scientists, NGOs and communities. The conceptual multi-hazard framework provides NGOs with a multi-hazard ‘lens’ to their analyses, but the findings emphasise that multi-hazard assessments require more than a toolkit. NGOs need the skills to access, understand and evaluate science and engage with scientists. There are numerous ideological and practical barriers to integrating science, which are partly addressed by a set of practical guidelines developed alongside the research. Beyond NGOs, the research has important implications for DRR policy.

Ongoing volcanic eruptions generate hazards of varying intensity over time, where more pervasive hazards include ashfalls, gases and acid rain. These hazards can generate widespread losses across societies and essential services in urban areas, constituting environments of extensive risk. Yet, the complexities of such environments are little-understood and the effects of ashfalls on complex systems that support societies are under-explored. This research applies a systems approach to explore the consequences and dynamics of long-term volcanic activity for the healthcare system in Montserrat, West Indies, where the long-duration eruption prompted relocation of the population further from the volcano. A case study methodology and qualitative methods are used to explore healthcare system recovery, dynamic interdependencies and complexities of healthcare system function in an ongoing eruption environment. The relocation presented significant challenges as well as opportunities to develop healthcare services, and the process of recovery for the healthcare system is ongoing. Development is hindered by legacies of the relocation that include a smaller population, resource shortages, and temporary infrastructure that became permanent. Consequences of ashfall exposure are wide-ranging, affecting facilities, services and staff. Yet, adaptations and capacities are identified across the system, and the interacting network of essential services contributes cascading disruptions, as well as capacities to respond to heightened volcanic activity and to reduce effects at vulnerable sectors. For healthcare staff, complex influences on decision-making, adjustment and balancing work and life are identified. Influences on healthcare function are found to be complex, interacting, and stem from external and internal factors as well as the wider development context. This thesis concludes that holistic approaches for exploring the function of complex systems in extensive risk contexts should account for the history of the system, the dynamic interactions of the system within its context and the complexities of the social context in which it operates.

One response to the increasing incidence of flooding in the UK has been to shift more responsibility towards local communities, and to suggest that they become increasingly involved in the Flood Risk Management process and do more to help themselves. Whilst the more recent vulnerability perspective highlights the importance of understanding the social aspects of disasters, relatively little is yet known about responses and impacts within the local community. The term 'community' is itself highly contested within the social sciences and this should be seen in the context of claims by some that the 'local' is being lost to the 'global'. Qualitative research with urban and rural flooded communities in northern England found that the majority of the residents interviewed did identify with their locality and articulated a sense of belonging or attachment; however this could be expressed in a number of different ways. The creation of a local community no longer appeared to arise naturally from residing in the same location but required both reflexivity and active efforts by residents. The research therefore suggests that the local community can be understood as a 'conscious community'. These communities were formed around different shared identities but dense, localised networks remained central to conceptions. Yet, in an increasingly mobile and interconnected world these networks had to be consciously created and maintained. Residents choosing to engage in community construction adopted different strategies to enable local people to meet one another and therefore local communities could take very varied forms. The local structures created by residents and the network patterns this then produced largely determined residents' ability to respond in a collective way to flooding. The research suggests that local community has the potential to offer a way to help people cope more effectively with flooding and other disasters, but only by moving beyond idealised notions of the 'traditional community' which fail to adequately reflect these complex and diverse communities. To support and enhance the ability of local residents to come together to cope with flooding we need to engage with the messy, complexity of conscious communities.