Working at the nexus of conservation and development is challenging. Participatory environmental monitoring (PEM) is, on paper, a win-win for conservation and development, but there has been limited evaluation of its effectiveness in improving the lives of local people while also supporting improved management of species of conservation concern. In this thesis, I use a multidisciplinary approach to gain a better understanding of the role and implications of PEM for conservation and development, using a project in Madagascar as a case study. I conducted a systematic literature review and online survey to describe approaches to PEM. I found that PEM schemes are variable, widespread and growing in number, but local participation is still limited and opportunities exist to improve use of modern technologies. Using occupancy modelling, I found that the case study lacks power to detect trends at the landscape level, but could provide useful presence-absence information on species and threats at the village level. However, the biggest issue highlighted by this research relates to inadequate data management that prevents most data being available for analyses and ‘learning-by-doing’ feedback loops. Using semi-structured interviews, I gathered local peoples’ perspectives of the project operating in their village and found that the project was widely known within the villages, but that not everyone benefits. Based on these findings and with my own first-hand experience of the case study project, I designed a tool for practitioners to use during the design and implementation of a PEM scheme. This thesis highlights the need to carefully consider all aspects of a PEM project, from the ecological knowledge gleaned from the data to the social impact across all sectors of the community. In doing so, this research demonstrates that PEM is challenging, complex and by no means a silver bullet for meeting dual conservation and development goals.

The anthropogenic exploitation of heavy metals (HMs) has resulted in widespread contamination on a global scale. Nowhere is this more evident than in the Central Wales Orefield (CWO), where the historical extraction and processing of Zn-, Pb- and Cu-rich ores has led to long-lived contamination of watercourses and agriculturally valuable soils, with a concomitant decline in ecosystem health and resilience. The use of plants for the phytoremediation of polluted substrates offers a cheap alternative to costly heavy engineering solutions, but relies on the identification of species that have adopted either HM avoidance or HM tolerance strategies at a biomolecular level. This investigation seeks to build on previous hydroponic-based HM tolerance research into the performance of genotypes selected from a Lolium perenne (amenity x forage) mapping family. Two experiments used a growth medium comprising sand and dominantly monometallic Zn or Pb-rich tailings provenanced from two mines in the CWO. In each experiment, three specific treatments were applied; control, 10% and 30% by weight of tailings. In the two Zn treatments this equated to bioavailable substrate concentrations (ZnBA) of 1,890 μg g-1 and 5,670 μg g-1 and, in the two Pb treatments, to a PbBA of 445 μg g-1 and 1,335 μg g-1. A detailed analysis of the results reveals a wide variation, both within and between the two experiments, in genotype performance for traits including longevity, biomass production, tolerance index, HM uptake, tissue metal concentrations, and HM translocation. However, the phytostabilisation potential of certain genotypes in the L. perenne mapping family is confirmed. Individual genotypes are identified which, through poly- or pair-crossing, could provide the foundation for an elite, HM tolerant population with high potential for field-based testing on soils contaminated with Zn and Pb, as well as other HM species. MapQTL analysis facilitated the identification of numerous growth- and HM uptake-related QTL, possibly underlain by candidate genes for stress tolerance and HM transport, providing strong evidence both for pleiotropy and for the polygenetic control of these traits.

Thiel embalmed cadavers were first used by the Centre for Anatomy and Human Identification, University of Dundee, in 2009, marking their introduction to the UK having been developed by Professor Walter Thiel in the University of Graz, Austria, over a thirty year period to 1992. The cadavers produced by the Thiel embalming method have many advantages over those produced by the more traditional formalin-phenol based method including a high degree of flexibility on par with in vivo conditions. However there is a distinct paucity of information regarding the way in which Thiel embalming affects the cadaveric tissues and the inherent implications for anatomical teaching and research. In addition, the Thiel solution uses formalin and boric acid, two chemicals which may be affected by changes in legislation governing their use within the EU. On that basis, the need to understand the effects of Thiel embalming on tissues, as well as the need to investigate the potential removal of formalin and boric acid from the Thiel solution, was acknowledged. This study presents an analysis of the effects of Thiel embalming using skeletal muscle and tendon samples, taken from an animal model, as these tissues are believed to be important to the flexibility of Thiel cadavers, using a number of methods. The way in which the effects are related to the flexibility caused is also considered in the context of existing relevant literature. In addition, the potential to remove and replace formalin and boric acid from the standard Thiel solution is also addressed. In assessing the effects of Thiel embalming solution on skeletal muscle and tendon, the aim of the thesis is to test the hypotheses that (i) changes in muscle and/or tendon structure, particularly in relation to collagen content, are responsible for the exaggerated flexibility seen in cadavers preserved using this method, (ii) it is the high salt content of Thiel embalming solution which is responsible for the change in tissue structure, and (iii) is it possible to replace the formalin and boric acid content of the Thiel solution and continue to successfully preserve specimens for anatomical teaching and research. The results of this study indicate that Thiel embalmed tissues, skeletal muscle in particular, undergo considerable histological modifications to their internal structure when compared to formalin and fresh samples whilst gross structure appears to remain intact through the maintenance of connective tissue integrity. This is supported by results which show a change in the biomechanical characteristics and protein content profile of target tissues. It is suggested that these changes are the basis for the increased flexibility observed in Thiel embalmed specimens. The results of a pilot study also indicate that it is possible to replace formalin and boric acid from the Thiel solution whilst maintaining successful preservation of specimens. A number of preservation techniques are considered throughout the study including Thiel, formalin and modified Thiel, and are compared to fresh samples as a control. A number of methods, including histological, biomechanical and protein analysis, are used to investigate differences between samples from each treatment group.

The vulnerability of local populations to environmental change and how this can be reduced through implementing the three major UN environmental conventions on climate change, biodiversity and desertification is investigated. The study uses empirical and policy analysis to identify options for addressing global environmental concerns from the perspective of the welfare of local communities in rural Africa. The way in which climate-induced events, in particular drought, manifest themselves in two case study sites, Mbitini in Kenya and Saweni in Tanzania, is examined in terms of coping strategies, entitlement decline and household consumption. A dynamic approach to understanding vulnerability and responses to climate events is developed within which determinants of coping are analysed. Household and key informant interview data are analysed regarding sources of food and income and the use of indigenous plants as part of agro-ecosystem management during different climatic conditions. Analysis reveals that household coping strategies are interdependent and vary between households and over time, according to the ability to access principal and complementary sources of food and income. Many complementary coping strategies are based on indigenous plant use, representing an important source of survival for poorer households. Insufficient household access to, and poor viability of, certain coping strategies constrain households from averting adverse impacts of drought. Analysis of policy documents and interview data reveals that Kenyan and Tanzanian policies largely focus on the drought resilience of agriculture and do not reflect the dynamism and diversity` of coping strategies of poor households. Opportunities exist within the UN environmental conventions to augment current strengths and redress weaknesses, for example by the strengthening of alternative income sources through the Desertification Convention. Policies which support the diversity of coping strategies and livelihood activities have the potential of bringing multiple benefits, in terms of improving the welfare of poorer households and ameliorating global environmental concerns.

This thesis describes the work of three local environmental protest groups, Rivertown Rising Tide, Greenpeace Rivertown and Friends of the Earth Rivertown. The research explores the ways in which participants of the three groups make sense of the groups' effectiveness through the prism of Carter's (2001) typology of impact. The investigation uncovers a diversity of views across the participants of the three groups on the relative importance of the different impact types to their group's effectiveness. The thesis provides a body of empirical evidence, derived through participant observation, on the relatively understudied area of local protest groups whilst contributing towards a potential refinement of Carter's typology by the identification of the influence of target proximity on participants' views.

Access to information, access to public participation and access to justice are recognised as the pillars of sound environmental governance, and are at the heart of environmental democracy. Collectively referred to as “environmental access rights”, they are promoted under Principle 10 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, and form the core pillars of a legally binding international instrument known as the Aarhus Convention. Malaysia, a developing country that has undergone rapid change, is striving to achieve its development goals through “Vision 2020”, but still struggles to balance between the economic, social, and environmental aspects of its development. By implementing transformation programmes, the Malaysian Government is displaying efforts to transition its “government-knows-best” approach into one that is more transparent, accountable, inclusive and citizen-centric. However, the findings of this empirical, exploratory research indicate that public access to environmental information and participation in environmental decision-making remain limited in Malaysia. Furthermore, the author’s investigation into two scenarios that took place in the country: 1) The Rare Earth Controversy in Kuantan, and 2) The Major Floods of 2014/2015, identified examples of how deficits in access to environmental information and public participation in Malaysia’s current system of environmental governance could arguably exacerbate such situations, and may contribute to social unrest as well as lack of confidence in the Government. Drawing from evidence of the research findings, the author suggests that Malaysia could benefit from enhanced access to environmental information as well as public participation in environmental decision-making, and thus proposes a framework to help the country progress towards achieving this objective. This research breaks new ground as it reports on recent events and developments (or lack thereof) in an area of study that has been sparsely explored in Malaysia. It is also timely as the country still faces environmental deterioration and increasing public demands for improved Government transparency, accountability, and citizen engagement. It is hoped that the research work contained in this thesis will enrich the existing knowledge on the subject area of environmental governance, specifically environmental access rights, and contribute towards promoting good environmental governance and democracy in Malaysia, the ASEAN region, and across the world.

Analysing environmental management practices of companies in developing and developed countries is important in the context of people in developing nations idealising and wanting the living standards and consumption patterns of developed countries. As a result, companies and government institutions in the former could be pursuing inadequate environmental strategies based on the latter with no regard of their own local conditions. Thus, there is a need to look at how comparable environmental management is between firms in developed and developing countries, what the most important environmental issues these firms are facing and how these issues are addressed. Furthermore, what lessons are derived from the environmental behaviour of companies in developed and developing countries, what is the role of environmental regulators in these nations and what policy recommendations could be made. This investigation contributes to the better understanding of environmental management in developed and developing countries through an empirical comparison of environmental management activities and strategies of companies in the United Kingdom and Mexico as examples of these nations. The empirical analysis is based on 358 questionnaires and 100 interviews conducted in Mexican and UK firms during 2001. Additionally, environmental government agencies were also interviewed. The research found that the ranking of environmental pressures experienced by companies is similar in both countries, but UK firms perceive higher pressures. The main obstacle to environmental activities amongst companies in both countries is high costs of such activities, but this obstacle seems to be more relatively important for Mexican firms. In addition, whereas Mexican firms are more oriented towards end-of-the-pipe solutions for their environmental problems, UK companies undertake more pollution prevention measures and more managerial action. There is also a similar lack of integration of environmental strategies into mainstream business strategies in Mexican and UK companies; however, the latter pursue more environmental strategies focussed on customers, suppliers, company image and the market. As general conclusions, the research found that the differences in drivers and obstacles to environmental activities experienced by companies have an influence on the environmental activities and strategies of companies. Equally, national contexts influence the drivers and obstacles to environmental activities. However, it was found that the operational environmental activities are mainly driven by regulation more than by any other driver. Finally, the lack of integration of environmental strategies into core business strategies amongst companies in both countries obeys to a lack of understanding of business drivers to pursue environmental activities and the high costs associated with such activities.

This research focused on the relationship between economic and environmental policy, identifying fault lines and investigating solutions. The research included both theoretical and empirical components, with the theoretical analysis informing the empirical research and vice versa. The theoretical component commenced with an examination at the interface between economic globalization and sustainability leading to reframing economic policy towards sustainability. This foundation was used to launch a vision for a sustainable world economy and a tentative policy framework capable of facilitating it. This proposed framework is termed ‘Proximization’ and relies on acceptance that sustainability should be overarching policy. For the empirical research, aviation was chosen as the particular sector because views are highly polarized making progress towards sustainable solutions particularly challenging. The methodology developed within the research was a novel approach combining the ethos of Action Research with case study analysis. It comprised 28 in-depth stakeholder interviews across a wide range from passengers and environmentalists to people in the aviation industry and government. The case study showed that applying the different mind-set developed in the conceptual analysis leads to identifying a solution even in this most difficult sector. The key finding of the research is that setting sustainability as the overarching policy objective facilitates the emergence of transformational solutions. This proved to be applicable in aviation and has considerable potential to be applied to other sectors. For ‘proximization’ to develop from an emerging concept to reality as an alternative framework for macroeconomic policy, would require pushing back against the policies that currently enable economic globalization, so might be contentious. More research is needed to apply the Action Research Case Study approach to other areas as well as to investigate further the merits of proximization to facilitate communities, countries and regions to find pathways to sustainability that suit their geography, culture and resources.

The thesis examines two environmental campaigns in Malaysia in order to consider their significance in relation to conceptualising ideas of environmental justice and citizenship. The first campaign, the Broga anti-incinerator campaign is compared and contrasted to the second campaign, the Bukit Merah anti-radioactive waste campaign. Using a qualitative approach, the thesis examines how campaigners made use of a wide range of international environmental justice concepts and discourses, and campaigning strategies. These were locally adapted to fit the Malaysian political and social context, so that campaigners could demand their rights and challenge the responsibilities of the state and business interests. Campaigners made their demands for accountability not only through the law courts, but also through using discourses and strategies of environmentalism, rights to information and participation, citizen science, and lobbying internationally via transnational advocacy networks. Collectively, these actions brought both internal and external pressures to bear on the state and business interests, and created new spaces for dissent and for the construction of rights and entitlements. While actual material gains were not substantial, there were gradual incremental changes in feelings of personal empowerment and political consciousness, and in institutional health and safety processes. From this, I argue that conceptual links should be made between ideas of environmental justice and environmental citizenship. Concepts of environmental citizenship help to strengthen arguments for environmental justice, and vice versa.

Non domestic buildings account for about one-sixth of the U.K.'s entire C02 emissions and one-third of the building related ones 2 . Their proportion of energy consumption, particularly electricity, has also been growing 2 . New buildings are not necessarily better, with energy use often proving to be much higher than their designers anticipated 2 . Annual C02 emissions of two- and sometimes three- times design expectations are far from unusual, leaving a massive credibility gap 2 . These and other global environmental and human health related concerns have motivated an increasing number of designers, developers and building users to pursue more environmentally sustainable designs and construction strategies 5 . However, these buildings can be difficult to evaluate, since they are large in scale, complex in materials and function and temporally dynamic due to limited service life of building components and changing user requirements 5 . All of these factors make environmental assessment of the buildings challenging. Previous Post Occupancy Review of Buildings and their Engineering (PROBE) building investigations have uncovered serious shortcomings in facilities management, or at least mismatches between a building's management needs and the ability of the occupiers to provide the right level of management 1 . Consequently, large differences between energy performance expectations and outcomes can occur virtually unnoticed, while designers continue to repeat flawed descriptions 2 . This investigation attempts to evaluate the building's operation and to help achieving demonstrable improvements in terms of energy efficiency and occupant satisfaction. The scope of this study is to evaluate the actual environmental performance of a building notable for its advanced design. The Education Resource Centre at the Eden Project was selected to compare design expectations with post occupancy performance. This report contains a small-scale survey of user satisfaction with the chosen building, an analysis of the building's energy use and information about the physical and managerial circumstances operating 24 . The author has attempted to zoom in on specific issues, such as energy performance and lighting consumption. Both successes and failures have been reported, providing owners, designers and end users with valuable, real-world information.