Previous research has identified household recycling as being an important pro- environmental behaviour and that behaviour is influenced by a number of psycho- social determinants. Several behavioural models were evaluated for appropriateness in representing recycling behaviour. The Triandis Theory of Interpersonal Behaviour (TIB) was selected as it incorporates a diverse range of psycho-social components, identified in the literature review as being important to household recycling. The TIB has been successfully used in other areas of human behaviour and was considered a useful model for investigating household recycling behaviour. This thesis presents research into household recycling behaviour in a UK local authority using a mixed-method approach. The research was conducted in phases commencing with scoping of the study area, analysis of secondary data from a large scale quantitative survey of households, and primary qualitative research through interviews with residents. It uses the TIB as a framework for presenting the findings, Questions from the household survey were used as proxies representing TIB components and compared with the results from the household interviews to provide an in-depth exploration of household recycling. A key finding was that individuals demonstrated characteristics of one of two types of recycling behaviour based on effort and degree of self-restriction. Significant differences were observed between behavioural determinants in accordance with their recycling behaviour. This suggests that recycling behaviour may be associated with different levels of influence based on the disposition of the individual. The research concluded that the TIB provides a useful way of framing the determinants of household recycling behaviour, and that its wider application could contribute to the understanding and practice.

With the introduction of European Union (EU) regulations on waste targets, the UK is committed to reducing waste, recycling and reusing policies. Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA) techniques have been used to alter pro-environmental behaviour with varying success Antecedent Strategies such as information, goal setting and modelling aim to influence factors that may affect behaviours before they occur. Consequence or reinforcement strategies mainly offer rewards for the performance of a pro-environmental behaviour - for example prizes and monetary incentives, and also feedback in the form of continuous information upon recycling. Studies were carried out in 6 student villages with a total population of approximately 900 students, over a period of two academic years. Multiple baseline designs were used and after baseline measurements different interventions were introduced for groups of households. The research aim of this thesis was to identify the key behavioural components that make up recycling in students and to test possible Applied Behaviour Analysis techniques to adjust these behaviours. The research identified three key behavioural components that make up appropriate recycling. These are the correct sorting of targeted items from non-targeted items also known as contamination; the ongoing output of these targeted items, to make up a large percentage of the waste produced, also known as the amounts produced and the movement of the bin to get these items collected by the waste collecting authorities. The study investigated the effects of information, prompts, social interventions, continuous feedback and incentives on these three key behavioural components. The schemes such as information and door-stepping, currently used by the Borough Council, were tested and found not suitable for students.

Society is faced with the growing problem of waste associated with mass consumption. The treatment and final disposal of waste is linked to a wide range of environmental problems, including loss and wastage of resources, atmospheric, aquatic and land pollution, as well as public health concerns. For these reasons, since the early 1990s there has been an emphasis on waste minimisation and recycling initiatives. The European Commission decided that packaging waste would be its first target in an aim to reduce waste in general - to be followed by several other producer responsibility type legislations. The landfill Directive came into force in 2002 - It reduces the amount of bio-degradable waste that can be landfilled and bans hazardous waste from most landfill sites. The End of Life Vehicle Directive came into force in 2003 and put the responsibility on the producer to organize recovery and recycling of vehicles. The Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) came into force in 2004 and requires manufacturers of such products to finance their recovery and recycling. This study looks at the UK Producer Responsibility Obligations (Packaging Waste) Regulations 1997 and the targets that have been chosen to enable the UK to fulfil the requirements of the European Directive (94/62/EC) on Packaging and Packaging Waste. The aim of the research focuses on establishing target levels with maximum environmental benefits, specifically for recovering and recycling cardboard packaging waste in the UK. The methodology used is Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), which considers the whole life cycle of cardboard packaging, including the manufacture of packaging from raw (or recycled) fibres, its transport and use and waste management options. A range of scenarios have been modelled to reflect present day achievements, the levels of recycling expected of Member States through the revised Directive targets, as well as extreme scenarios. The scenarios are: Base scenario: 53% recycling, 4.23% incineration and 42.77% landfill Scenario 2: 60% recycling with 37.2% landfill and 2.8% incineration Scenario 3: 70% recycling with 27.9% landfill and 2.1 % incineration Scenario 4: 80% recycling with 18.6% landfill and 1.4% incineration Scenario 5: 35% recycling with 60.45% landfill and 4.55% incineration Scenario 6: 100% landfill Scenario 8: 100% incineration. It was found that significant reductions in global warming and carcinogens are associated with increasing levels of recycling (the highest level assessed was 80% recycling), but this comes at a cost of a slight increase in energy usage impacts. Global warming impacts fall by 20% with an increase in recycling from 53% to 80%. However, some of these potential benefits are compromised if waste cardboard needs to be exported to Europe for recycling. This particular project is looking at waste related policy issues. However it needs to be acknowledged that the manufacturing of cardboard packaging accounts for a significant proportion of the total burdens associated with the cardboard-packaging life cycle. These burdens are not affected by waste management policies; instead they would require improvements in the manufacturing processes to be made.

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The main objective of this research was to assess the potential environmental benefits of the 'Local Paper for London' (LPfL) cycle. A key challenge was to improve the efficiency of uncoated woodfree printing and writing (uwf P+W) paper recycling from London's commercial sector. This is achieved by 'closed-loop' recycling, whereby commercial consumers direct their waste paper back through a defined cycle to the recycled paper production facility from where they procure their 100% recycled uwf P+W paper. Life cycle assessment was used to define and compare the environmental burdens of the LPfL cycle with those of conventional supply strategies for uwf P+W papers available to consumers in the UK. Previous LCA studies into waste paper recycling show that key environmental burdens are associated with energy generation, sludge disposal and transportation in the waste paper collection and finished product delivery phases. Improvement strategies are developed to address these issues in the LPfL cycle. The results point to the development of a city-scale PAPER-Materials and Energy Recovery Facility (PAPER-MERF). At such a plant, based near the recycled paper production site, waste paper can be separated into recoverable fibre suitable for uwf P+W paper reproduction and a fibre-based recoverable energy stock; thus, in theory, the cycle has the potential to be completely powered by renewable energy. Some of the fibre sludge generated in the pulping process is also used to generate energy. Fibre sludge can also be used on or off-site for a fibreboard co-product stream. Burdens associated with transportation of finished paper are vastly reduced since the target consumers are local and, potentially, the finished goods delivery phase can be integrated with the waste paper collection cycle. The research also considers non-environmental impacts, whereby regional waste paper availability and the fibre sustainability of the LPfL product are both proven to be viable.

This thesis describes a programme of research that provides an understanding of the effect of time and space on the processing and reuse of packaging by consumers. It seeks through ethnographic research techniques and design evaluation to propose a conceptual framework for understanding the phenomenon of packaging reuse in the UK.The study recognises that many consumers creatively 'misuse' packaging without 'explicit persuasion or reward' and aims to gain a greater understanding of the way consumers take meanings from objects and find secondary uses for them to suit their own needs whether born out of necessity or playfulness. While much research investigates consumers' attitudes to branding strategy and packaging design to increase product sales, there is little evidence of work carried out that looks into the post-purchase issues of how consumers interact, reuse and dispose of packaging within their domestic environment. The study takes the constructionist perspective that meaning of objects is created through interaction and use. It is also broadly phenomenological in its approach, with the objective to leave behind, or escape, the conventional mind-set of design - where designers are accustomed to commanding and specifying the form of the material world. This research requires the prosaic processes of consumption to be witnessed, but from a design perspective, bringing with it an understanding of the effect of changes to the form and function of objects. The study is based on a user-centred design approach and is interested in the way consumers behave with packaging, in order to provide effective approaches for designing for consumer interaction and reuse. Evaluation of existing and new designs was appropriate to this study and allowed frequent testing and analysis of the findings from the various research exercises. The designs were represented in 2D and 3D pack formats and evaluated using observation and semi-structured interviews. The study builds on a broad range of literature and develops themes particular to packaging in the areas of consumption, material values, the functions of objects, consumer types and ultimately presents theories regarding consumer behaviour when using and processing products and packaging within the home. The contribution of this study is an understanding of how three main elements affect packaging reuse: the design of the object, the context/ environment the object is within, and the consumer type. Through evaluation of the research data, a scheme is presented that provides new knowledge as to the spatial and temporal aspects of packaging reuse. It presents the types of further functions UK consumers can recognise in packaging once its primary function is over, and how designers can build opportunities for reuse into packaging design. The findings are useful to those interested in packaging design strategy, sociological researchers interested in aspects of consumption, and researchers from wider disciplines. The thesis also provides insights into consumer behaviour, their attitudes to material objects and acceptance of waste that are relevant to those interested in sustainable design, however the principal outcomes of this study are new insights into consumer practices, that may influence design decisions in the packaging industry and more widely.

New mandatory recycling targets within the UK present a serious challenge to local authorities. 9 out of 10 people claim to recycle within the UK, yet the recycling rate remains at c.10%, well short of the necessary levels required. Fully understanding how to convert households attitudes and opinions into efficient participatory behaviour, within what still remains a voluntary activity, is essential if targets are to be met at an 'affordable' economic and environmental cost. Best practice for local authorities in relation to developing kerbside recycling schemes is currently developed on a basis of previous experience within other authorities, i.e. 'it was successful there, so it should be successful here', rather than understanding the reasons for a given success or failure. Although previous research has highlighted a series of drivers / barriers to recycling and a schemes success / failure, monitoring these relationships collectively during the same spatial and temporal conditions is rarely undertaken. Understanding the issues involved with 'Best Guidance' for local authorities, not only requires the drivers and barriers to household's recycling behaviour to be understood, recognition of the relative importance and interaction between these issues, More importantly, local authorities need to recognise those that are within the authority control. This research has monitored in detail three separate kerbside recycling schemes that vary in their demands on both the householder to participate, and the cost to the scheme provider to implement and maintain. Household's attitudes and claimed / actual recycling behaviour were monitored both before and after their introduction in an attempt to identify the relative affect and interaction of factors determining recycling participation and participation efficiency. Collected data is supported by secondary data sets from other nationally reported research projects. The research has identified a series of relationships and behavioural patterns supported by both quantitative and qualitative data sources in relation to each of the kerbside recycling schemes monitored, and those most commonly used within the UK. Determining factors have been classified into four categories (I. the material, 2. scheme maintenance, 3. scheme design and 4. the individual). A model has been created that has ranked these factors in relation to their effect on determining participation and recovery levels, supported by a thorough understanding of the issues involved. A further self-calibrated model has been developed predicting diversion levels at a scheme or district level. Some main findings of the project are as follows: ~ The inconvenience that the 'material itself' presents to the householder to recycle it, is the most important factor effecting recycling levels. An imaginary scale in response to 5 hypothetical questions identifies the most likely recovery efficiency of a particular material as a result of conditions within the home independent of the other three categories. ~ Material recovery levels fall into 3 distinct categories, determined initially in order of the materials product type, recognised as media, beverage, then food, followed by the materials type, e.g. glass, metal, then plastic, regardless of the other three categories. ~ Expected recovery ratios 00 kerbside recycling schemes normalised against newspapers have been suggested e.g. c.0.9 (glass bottles), c.0.7 (drink cans), c. 0.6 (plastic bottles), c.0.4 (food cans) etc. ~ Clear, effective communication and scheme mainteranoe, i.e. feedback, maintains high participation and increases materials recovery, especially for the packaging fractions. ~ The scheme design affects both participation levels and participation efficiency for specific materials. A convenient system is required to achieve high levels of either. ~ Positive attitudes are not necessarily a pre-determinant of recycling behaviour and are not influenced by a schemes design. Specific attitudes are similar for recyclers and 110nrecyclers. ~ Differences between claimed and monitored behaviour in relation to participation, set-out and materials recovery were observed.

Organic waste has been recognised as a major problem in waste management worldwide. Material recovery of key value components from organic waste using a series of novel solvents, ionic liquids (ILs), has been investigated as a potential sustainable management solution. The overall aim of the research described in this thesis is to develop novel methodologies based on ionic liquid extraction that fractionates and recovers value from organic waste either as a source of energy or as a source of feedstock for the chemical and related industries. The results of this investigation are presented in terms of: (i) the synthesis and characterisation of ILs, using microwave-assisted methods and conventional organic synthesis; (ii) the solubility measurements of key food and food-related components in a suite of prepared ILs; (iii) the use of ILs in the recovery of key value components from organic waste streams; and (iv) the development and trialling of a novel IL mix as a dual solvent for extraction and subsequent conversion of key value components into value-added products in a selected organic waste stream. A suite of eight imidazolium and pyridinium-based ionic liquids is prepared, by microwave-assisted technology, and for comparison purposes by conventional organic synthesis methods. The extent of solubilities of pure food and food-related components in ‘dry’ conventionally prepared ILs was determined. Since the ILs are hygroscopic and can absorb water from the atmosphere, these studies are extended to identify any changes in solubility of the waste components in IL:water mixtures with varying water contents and in ILs obtained from the rapid synthesis method that are likely to contain higher levels of water than those prepared by conventional methods. Ionic liquids demonstrated selective solubility, a property that formed the basis of the extraction trials carried out in this research where the extent of extraction capability of the ILs was ascertained. These trials demonstrated that ILs can be a powerful tool for extraction and recovery of components from organic materials, where the ILs themselves can be recovered in high yield for recycle within a closed loop system. A major organic food-related waste stream is waste cooking oil which represents an attractive alternative feedstock for biodiesel production. A particular feature of waste cooking oils, however, is the elevated levels of free fatty acids that are produced during the frying process which reduce the effectiveness of the traditional transesterification process to produce biodiesel. To address this challenge, the research involved a two-step approach: (i) the identification of suitable ILs as extractants for fatty acids and as catalysts for esterification reactions on a model system; and (ii) the preparation of a simulated waste cooking oil, derived from pure palm oil, for trialling its conversion to fatty acid methyl esters (biodiesel) using an IL mix, as extractant and esterification catalyst. HPyrBr/SMIMHSO4 and HPyr/SPyrHSO4 were developed and found to exhibit both fatty acid extraction and esterification catalysis properties. Solubility testing of fatty acids and their methyl esters in the IL mix showed that the fatty acid extracting property and the ester separation mechanism of the IL mix were still preserved. In conclusion, as well as exploiting the properties of ILs in a dual reaction system, with a novel IL mix, a further benefit of the developed process is the ability for the first time to conduct the extraction of free fatty acids and their esteriification in a “one-pot” reactor. In all cases, the recovered IL and/or IL mix demonstrated the potential for its reuse within the closed loop process.

Avec l'augmentation de niveau de vie des populations, de plus en plus déchets urbains sont produits chaque jour en grande quantité. Ces déchets non seulement occupent une place importante mais dégradent l'environnement en particulier parce qu'ils contiennent divers polluants, qui peuvent porter atteinte à la santé humaine. Le compostage permet aux déchets urbains d'être recyclés en transformant la matière organique en engrais pour les sols agricoles. Par ailleurs, ce procédé peut aussi être utilisé comme méthode de biorestauration pour les sols pollués. Les modèles mathématiques sont des outils qui permettent de comprendre et éventuellement de modifier le processus de compostage. Ils pourraient également prédire la stabilité des produits issus du compostage et quantifier la nocivité des polluants qu'ils contiennent. L'objectif dans cette étude était de construire un modèle décrivant la dynamique des micropolluants organiques au cours du compostage et paramétrer le modèle sous l'interface de MATLAB. Ce modèle peut être utilisé selon les besoins des usagers avec 3 modules: le module de carbone organique, le module de polluants organiques et le module de couplage. Afin de calibrer et valider notre modèle, un ensemble de données de 12 différents mélanges de déchets et 4 différents types de polluants ont été utilisés. Pour l'application de la technique de compostage dans le domaine de la bioremédiation des sols contaminés, une expérience de compostage en laboratoire a été conçue dans lequel les déchets urbains organiques ont été mélangés avec un sol contaminé par des HAP. Nous avons étudié la dynamique des matières organiques, des micropolluants organiques et des populations microbiennes. Les résultats ont montré que la quantité des HAP dégradée a été de 50-60% lorsque le sol est composté avec des déchets organiques. En outre, des populations microbiennes successives ont été observées pendant le processus de compostage. Ces résultats expérimentaux ont été simulés par notre modèle afin de tester sa capacité dans un système sol-compostage. Cependant, quelques questions de recherches se posent encore: en ce qui concerne la modélisation, la simulation des substrats organiques solubles n'est pas assez bonne, ce qui est probablement dû à des limites sur l'étude des caractéristiques biochimiques des fractions organiques soluble; par ailleurs, seule la fonction température a été considérée comme facteur de l'environnement dans notre modèle, des limitations dues à l'l'humidité ou à l'oxygène, par exemple, doivent être étudiées dans des études ultérieures. L'activité microbienne pendant chaque phase de dégradation des HAPs n'a pas encore été assez clairement établie pour être incorporée dans notre modèle. / With the increasing of people's living standards, more and more urban wastes are produced everyday with a huge quantity. The big amount of wastes have not only occupied precious land resource, influenced the industry seriously and agricultural production, but also introduced various pollutants, which will harm human's life and health. Compost processing can help urban wastes to be recycled by transforming the organic matter into fertilizer and be returned to nature. Also it can be used as a bioremediation method for the polluted soil. The mathematical model is an efficient tool for understanding and modifying the composting process, predicting the stability of compost products, and then assuring the harmfulness of pollutants for agriculture. Our objective in this study was to construct a model describing the dynamics of organic micro-pollutants during the composting and parameterize the model under the interface of MATLAB. This model should be used according to users' needs with 3 modules: organic carbon module, organic pollutants module and coupling module. In order to calibrate and validate our model, the datasets from 12 different waste mixtures and 2 different types of pollutants with different initial conditions were applied. On the other hand, for applying the composting technique in the field of bioremediation of contaminated soil, an in-vessel composting experiment was designed in which the organic urban wastes mixed with soil contaminated by PAHs were used as materials. We studied the dynamics of organic matter, organic micro-pollutants and the microbial populations. The conclusion showed that the concentration of PAHs could be decrease by 50-60% with the effects of organic matters and the accelerated microbial activities compared to bare soil. Furthermore, the successive microbial populations have been observed during the composting process. These experimental results could be well simulated by our model which indicates its capacity in the soil-composting system. However, we still came across some questions during my research. The simulations for soluble organic substrates were not accurate enough, due to the limits of the biochemical characterization of organic fractions. In our model, only the function of temperature has been considered as the environmental factor, more limiting factors such as moisture, oxygen, … need to be investigated in the further studies. The microbial diversity of each decomposition phase has been investigated in the experiment but was not added in the model because its impact on PAHs degradation is not clear enough. In order to answer all these questions, further researches needs to be done, although the study in the field of microbial flora has begun to be carried out.

Waste and its management is a dynamic subject that has far reaching implications. These extend beyond basic practical issues of producer responsibility and consumer behaviour, and encompass pollution and environmental problems in a global context. Economic concerns, such as scarcity of resources and the emergence of environmental issues such as sustainability, have influenced the need for a waste management strategy that will increase material re-use and recycling, and energy recovery. Increasing quantities of waste and changes in its composition have placed an ever increasing pressure on traditional disposal routes, namely landfill, giving impetus to the development of alternative management options. The emphasis on management through a waste hierarchy has resulted in a trend throughout Europe of striving towards numerical targets to induce movement away from landfill. In 1990 the UK government set a target of recycling 25% of household waste by the year 2000. The Dutch have set a general waste target to separate 65% of waste for recycling, by the year 2000. Currently, achievement of the UK target is unlikely. Explanations for this do not stem from the target being too high, as it has been illustrated in Europe and more specifically in the Netherlands, that more stringent targets are already being attained. Therefore this research is of importance in developing a greater understanding of the barriers and alternative policy incentives that exist in achieving materials reclamation and energy recovery, and aims to contribute to the development of suitable policies and strategic options. Previous research has focused on specific aspects or singular concepts within the field of waste management. Although this has proved useful in specific contexts, the results and applications have been limited. This research extends such experience further in developing a model that can link the barriers that exist with regard to the 'successful' implementation of waste management strategies. This model focuses on evaluating data gained from the case study, having identified causal relationships and underlying pressures. It introduces a way of relating national data with local data, and it is at this interface that the 'success' of a waste management strategy can be determined, or barriers to its application can be identified and policies developed to overcome such barriers. The research design has been developed within the framework of a comparative embedded case study. The methodology enables a fuller understanding of the current situation at national, regional and local level, incorporating a number of different data collection techniques. The selection of Sheffield and Amsterdam allows a greater focus on crosscultural issues with specific reference to environmental awareness, recycling behaviour and implementation strategies within each local political framework. These results can then be placed within the context of the model to identify the feasibility of policy targets, and propose modifications to the policy or strategic options available.