Arsenic and other trace elements were analysed in natural waters and human biological samples (scalp hair, nails and blood serum) from the high-arsenic provinces of Santa Fe and San Juan in Argentina by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Arsenic species were also analysed in waters from Santa Fe and Rio Negro (low-arsenic province) using a solid phase extraction (SPE) technique and evaluated in relation to pH and redox potential (Eh). In Santa Fe and San Juan the water arsenic levels typically exceeded the World Health Organisation (WHO) and Argentine standard for drinking water of 10 1lg/1 As, ranging 11.1 - 1050 and 1.49 - 14900 Ilg/1 As, respectively. The impact of this arsenic exposure was reflected in the hair (0.03 - 7.85 mg/kg As), fingernail (0 .08 - 16.7 mg/leg As) and toenail (0.07 - 21.1 mg/kg As) washed samples fi.-om Santa Fe, with statistically significant correlations (Speannan, P < 0.01) observed against the well water across the whole population. In contrast, no statistically significant correlations (at P < 0.05) were found between the samples from San Juan: hair, 0.01 - 241.7 mg/leg As; toenails: 0.04 - 0.55 mg/leg As, and; blood serum 0.26 - 721 ug/1 As. The relationship between arsenic exposure and the presence of a chronic health disorder, specifically type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), was evaluated in both populations. The toenail arsenic levels in the healthy/control participants were significantly higher (Mann-Whitney U-test, P < 0.01), compared to those with a chronic health disorder, including T2DM. These differences were thought to be due to an improved arsenic metabolism in individuals with a high body mass index (BMI). Further differences were found for hair and blood serum, with significantly (P < 0.01) higher levels of arsenic observed in the samples from the T2DM population, suggesting a relationship between arsenic and T2DM. A number of statistically significant correlations were found between arsenic, selenium and vanadium in the biological samples from the control and T2DM groups. However, due to the complexity of T2DM, no conclusive relationships could be found between this disorder and arsenic. A further study was conducted on the geothermal waters from Copahue-Caviahue in Argentina and the Taupo Volcanic Zone (TVZ) in New Zealand. Analysis of the Upper Rio Agrio waters on Copahue volcano (466 - 614 1lg/1 As) indicated that the volcano could be a source of the arsenic contamination across Argentina. In addition, the geothermal waters in New Zealand highlighted a potential minor exposure route of dermal absorption which may affect bathers in these waters or individuals using high-arsenic ground or surface waters for self-washing in Argentina.

Soils are complex and highly variable ecosystems within which a multitude of diverse microbial populations can be found. Here the effects of co-correlating environmental variables and spatial separation upon the diversity and community structure of two microbial kingdoms is investigated using several molecular based community assessment methods. Using an optimised nucleic acid extraction procedure, suitable for landscape scale surveys of microbial biogeography, large scale bacterial and fungal targeted terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (t-RFLP) analysis was undertaken on soils collected as part of the Countryside Survey 2007 to show that populations of both kingdoms are structured, in part, by variability in environmental and edaphic conditions as well as spatial separation. In the case of soil bacteria, pH was identified as the most important environmental variable, although computed models suggest that many other environmental variables also play strong roles. Fungal systems have weaker relationships with environmental variability and stronger spatial relationships, although dominant plant species and soil pH were shown to significantly affect community structure. However, comparing results generated from different genes with different taxonomic resolutions hinders accurate comparisons between divergent microbial kingdoms. Pyrosequencing analysis was undertaken on 15 geographically isolated soil samples forming a natural pH gradient to address the changes in bacterial and fungal populations at great sequencing depth and at taxonomic resolutions closer to the species level. Again, in both cases, members of these kingdoms responded to differences in soil pH and the above ground plant community. A number of bacterial and fungal taxa were found to be responsible for the changes in community structure and diversity noted in the t-RFLP based experiments and are proposed as candidates for indicators of soil pH. In summary soil bacterial and fungal populations are structured according to complex laws relating to co-correlating environmental and spatial variables. This leads to the hypothesis that microbial communities are structured in similar ways to terrestrial macro organisms, and thus ecological theories derived from observations of larger animals may be investigated within the microbial world.

The importance of accurate and representative air quality impact assessment (AQIA) for new developments is becoming increasingly focal with the introduction of the framework for Local Air Quality Management (Air Quality Management Areas and Air Quality Action Plans), stricter legislative requirements and increasing traffic flows. It is argued in this thesis that incorporation of workforce profile variables (WPVs) will allow a more detailed site-specific air quality assessment to be undertaken. Workforce Profile Variables included within this research include Region, Specific Location, Socio-economic Grouping, Gender and Age. The findings from this work enable an evaluation of whether such variables should be included in AQIAs for employment related developments. The research examines the effect of including region, specific location and WPVs (age, gender and socio-economic grouping) in commuter emissions prediction and the need for inclusion of such variables in AQIA for new employment related developments. Such WPVs are not considered in conventional AQIA and therefore results from this work are compared with conventional techniques. In order to achieve this, two models have been developed which inter-relate specific data from the UK National Travel Survey and emission factors. The models predict emissions impact (RACE) and traffic generation (TRACE) and have been applied to three case study scenarios in the UK, covering a range of employment related development scenarios in London, Bath and Devon. The TRACE element of the research has incorporated atmospheric dispersion modelling in order to derive pollutant concentrations and allow comparison with the conventional approach to AQIA. The findings associated with the RACE element of the research show that region, specific location and WPVs can influence emission predictions associated with commuting. The outcomes from the TRACE comparison show that lower pollutant concentrations are likely from the inclusion of WPVs, when compared with the conventional approach to AQIA. The significance of these differences is dependent upon existing pollutant concentrations in the local area. Greatest differences are seen for predictions of nitrogen dioxide and these become more significant in: areas with existing concentrations either close to or exceeding air quality objectives. The research also demonstrates how inclusion of such variables allows more site specific assessment. It is concluded that the inclusion of WPVs will lead to greater confidence in air quality predictions associated with new employment related developments and make such assessments more site-specific.

Paper degradation is an unavoidable series of processes and the most important factors causing paper degradation in long-term archival storage are temperature, relative humidity, pollutants and the paper properties, mainly acidity. To study these effects, experiments were performed to determine degradation rates on sacrificial historic papers, with a reference to Nationaal Archief (The Netherlands). Handling and display lifetimes were defined and calculated for each paper type and shown to differ significantly according to paper type and purpose of use. The lifetimes were significantly affected by concentrations of NO2 resembling actual concentrations in archival repositories, whereas the effect of AcOH was limited. A new approach to defining pollutant doses was introduced, which also takes into account degradation resulting from T and RH. At realistic pollutant concentrations, T and RH, and paper properties contribute significantly to the overall degradation process during long-term storage, and should therefore be included in a comparative assessment of preservation options. A new concept of pollutant thresholds was also introduced. Using this concept, the determined thresholds are in the concentration range found in an archival repository or above for NO2, but depend significantly on paper type for AcOH. A method for estimating paper lifetime was proposed. As both handling and display lifetimes of the most sensitive parts of a typical collection were predicted to be less than 500 years, preservation measures to achieve that target were investigated using the method of lifetime prediction. Air filtration would prolong the lifetime of the most sensitive acidic paper by approximately 150 years. The same effect could, however, be achieved by other preservation measures, such as decreasing the temperature by 4 °C. Outcomes of the research presented here could inform the decision-making process in planning long-term preservation measures by providing a quantitative comparison of different options and the required research evidence.

The thesis seeks to examine whether the concept of the British policy network framework helps to explain policy change in Japan. For public policy studies in Japan, such an examination is significant because the framework has been rarely been used in analysis of Japanese policy. For public policy studies in Britain and elsewhere, such an examination would also bring benefits as it would help to answer the important question of whether it can be usefully applied in the other contexts. Based on an examination of the policy networks concept, this thesis sets out four distinct hypotheses. In order to examine their validity, the thesis examines policy-making and policy changes on emission standards in automobile air pollution policies in Japan from the 1960s to the 2000s based on the application of the policy networks approach. The thesis concludes that the policy networks approach can help to explain policy changes in Japan to a certain extent but that its explanatory value is limited. In order to make the concept more relevant to Japan, the thesis suggests that the approach should pay more attention to interpersonal relationships, individuals and individual companies and that it should consider how well participants are incorporated into networks and whether different interests can co-exist without conflicts more fully. Further, it proposes that the approach should take into consideration other associated policy networks and relationships between policy networks in order to more effectively understand policy change. Finally, based on the findings, the thesis proposes future research on shifts from the government style to the governance style of politics on automobile air pollution at both the national and local levels in Japan.

In the last decade London and Mexico City have suffered from perceived poor air quality due to increased concentrations of road transport emissions. Current data on mortality rates show that in 1991 a wintertime pollution episode in London contributed to 100-180 premature deaths; similarly, it is said that high levels of pollution in Mexico City during 1990 contributed to an estimated total number of 6,400 excess deaths. In addition, the number of health studies on morbidity in these two cities shows that air pollution has produced adverse effects on the health and well-being of their inhabitants. Under London and Mexico City's air quality situation local authorities play a crucial role for addressing and tackling this urban environmental problem. This thesis examines air quality management and diverse models of local government organisation. By adopting a comparative approach, the analysis focuses on how diverse local government structures operate in relation to air pollution control from the perspective of local and central authorities and other key agencies. The purpose of this research is to combine analysis of the impact of political and institutional changes for air quality management looking at two local case-studies: London and Mexico City. The main objective is to contribute to the understanding of local government studies as well as of air quality policy research. Theoretically, the research outlines the debates on reorganising local government by focusing on three perspectives which offer diverse explanations to urban environmental problems: orthodox public administration model, public choice theory, and the local governance approach. The main argument considers the need for both an upper-tier area-wide coordinating authority and lower-tier politically fragmented government units at the local level for improving air quality and thus in both urban centres.

No description available.

Air pollution is associated with mortality and morbidity worldwide. Hot and cold temperature is also related to increased deaths and possibly hospital visits and admissions in many settings. Climate change is anticipated to pose increasing risks of deaths and illnesses associated with air pollution and temperature variations, particularly in developing world. To date, research studies about health effects of air pollution and temperature have been conducted in developed countries with cool climate more than in developing countries with subtropical or tropical climate. Furthermore, studies to identify susceptible populations are still limited. This study aims to investigate heath effects of air pollution and temperature and to identify people who are more susceptible to air pollution and temperature in a developing, tropical country, Thailand. A regression analysis of retrospective time series data was employed to assess the shortterm effects of air pollution and temperature on daily out-patient visits and hospital admissions in Chiang Mai, Thailand, from October 2002 to September 2006. Generalised negative binomial regression was used to model the relationships between the exposure and health outcomes, controlling for seasonal patterns and other possible potential confounders. Lag effects up to 4 days for air pollution, and up to 13 days for temperature were considered. Effect modification by age, sex, occupation, season, and previous out-patient visits before admissions were also examined. There were positive, but not significant, effects of air pollution for some pollutants (particularly for S02), with notably larger effect sizes compared to previous studies in Western countries. There was evidence of hot temperature effects (though wide confidence intervals), with an increase in diabetic visits of 26.3% (95% Cl, 7.1% to 49.0%), and in circulatory visits of 19.2% (95% Cl, 7.0% to 32.8%) for each 1°C increase in temperature above 29°C. There was a rise of both the visits (3.7% increase, 95% Cl, 1.5% to 5.9%) and admissions (5.8% increase, 95% Cl, 2.3% to 9.3%) due to intestinal infectious disease for each 1°C increase across the whole temperature range. Despite no statistically significant differences between subgroups, air pollution effects were stronger in the elderly, females and manual workers, whereas temperature effects were stronger in the elderly, male and unemployed people. This study suggests that while there was little evidence of air pollution effects, there was significant evidence of high temperature effects on daily morbidity in Chiang Mai. The elderly seemed to be more vulnerable to the daily changes of both air pollution and temperature.

Epidemiological studies have shown that long term exposure to ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and particulate matter (PM) are associated with adverse effects on lung function. However, disentangling the independent effects of each pollutant has proved difficult, if not an impossible task. Toxicological evidence is necessary, but no experimental study so far has compared the oxidative effects of these three air pollutants under the same controlled conditions. Air pollutants are believed to cause their pathophysiological actions in the respiratory system, at least in part, through oxidative stress. The principal objective of this study was to assess their order of significance by measuring their oxidative potential in our respiratory tract lining fluid model. Synthetic respiratory tract lining fluid (synRTLF) was exposed to varying O3 and NO2 concentrations (0, 50, 150, 400, 1000 ppb) for 120 minutes. Aliquots of synRTLF were removed from the exposure chamber every 30 minutes and the concentrations of ascorbate, urate, and glutathione (reduced and oxidised) were measured. Similarly, filter disc cuts of PM collected daily from roadside and background locations in London, were incubated in synRTLF. The quantification methods used were the same as those used for the gaseous exposures. These experimental findings constitute the first to compare the effects of O3 and NO2 in a lung lining fluid model under the same experimental conditions. O3 caused significantly greater antioxidant depletion than NO2 in vitro. Direct comparison of the antioxidant depletion actions of the three air pollutants was achieved by applying the experimentally calculated rates on the pollutant’s daily mean concentrations. The results revealed that (on the days considered) PM was responsible for higher antioxidant depletion across all tested days and sites when compared with the gases. The higher levels of NO2 at roadside compared with O3 at the same location resulted in a significantly higher overall oxidative capacity of NO2 compared with O3 at roadside, while the opposite effect was observed at the background London site. All three air pollutants considered resulted in antioxidant depletion in our lung lining fluid model, and thus our findings offer further support that the antioxidants in the respiratory system are playing a protective role. Also, these results highlighted the oxidative potential of PM and the significance of NO2 exposure at roadside locations.

Nitrate (N03) contamination is a significant global concern in many agricultural catchments. This research undertook a national scale and a catchment scale to investigate the influence of hydrogeological setting the fate and transport of N03 in agricultural catchments. In this researc statistical analyses of a national database showed that groundwater N03 concentrations are controlled by a combination of factors including the hydrogeological. setting, which incorporates transmissivitY ' and flow path length, landuse pressure, soil type, subsoil thickness and" permeability, groundwater oxidation reduction potential (ORP) conditions. A catchment scale study was undertaken of two study catchments containing contrasting hydrogeological characteristics. In the Nuenna catchment underlain by an Rkd aquifer, point sources are not a significant influence on the water quality in terms of N in the Nuenna River. In the Glen Burn catchment, underlain by a Pl aquifer, point sources have a significant influence on the Glen Burn River water quality. This contribution from sources increases as the groundwater level decreases and discharge from shallow groundwater reduces. Greater storage and persistence of N03 in the Nuenna Rkd aquifer indicate that lag time for a decrease in groundwater N03 concentrations to occur more significant factor in Rkd aquifers. In contrast, lag time is not as significant in the Glen Burn Pl aquifer where N03 concentrations in the shallow bedrock are influenced by groundwater table fluctuations, the presence of preferential pathways through the till and seasonal changes pressure loadings. Denitrification with depth in this aquifer is shown through suitable hydrochemical conditions, an isotopic enrichment ratio 1.8:1 between 015N and 0180 and the presence of bacteria containing the gene. In contrast, hydrochemical, isotopic and microbial analyses have that denitrification is not significant in the Nuenna catchment, but the dominant biogeochemical process is nitrification.