Is it possible to help families of political ex-prisoners talk about the past using photographic re-enactment, set within a framework of Post-Positive, Critical Realism? This thesis presents three case studies which adopts a feminist/community activist, artistic approach to enable family members of political ex-prisoners to talk ,about interrnalised trauma related to their relative's imprisonment in Northern Ireland. during t~e historic period called 'The Troubles', This was accomplished using a socially engaged, Participative Action Research (PAR) paradigm. The methodology is practice based; using the ' values of Feminism and PAR it gave the participants control of the research outputs via the short film, their lifeline books and an audio photographic exhibition. The research used several methods, 'in particular the Family Album via Spence, (1979, 1986, 1995, 2005, 2012) Martin, (2001) Kuhn (2002) and Morrissey (2005), these theorists question the myth of 'happiness' evident within the family album. I investigated re-enactment photography theories, which are underpinned by Deller's (2~01) 'The Battle of Orgreave' and Sepinuck's 'Theatre of Witness' (2013) both techniques challenge cultural forgetting. Weiser's (1999) theory of photo projective techniques ;enabled the participants to picture their internalised memories. The research situates the, participants within their personal, cultural and political framework via Critical Realism. Qualitative methods of data collection were used via in-depth personal interviews and narrative analysis, that I collected throughout the workshop processes. The data revealed that internalisation of trauma was passed on from one generation to the next resulting in a disconnection of the third generation who knew little of their parents and grandparents experiences. My analysis enabled me to produce an advanced re-enactment methodology to enable the women to talk about their internalised memories. I also designed a facilitator's guide which maps out a three stage methodological process. The study concluded that Participative Action Research which includes a combination of methods centred on photographic re-enactment can encourage an intergenerational exchange of memories which can facilitate familial and community discussions about the past.

This study investigated whether sexual offenders were measurably different from nonoffenders on a battery of self-report questionnaires. The study was designed to test four aims: 1. To test the validity of the self-report methodology. 2. To test the effectiveness of the treatment given to sex offenders. 3. To test for differences between the offender's before and after their treatment with the nonoffenders. 4. To test the differences of the psychological profiles between the offender samples and the nonoffenders. The four aims were related to divergent positions held in the literature on sexual offenders. One position in the literature views sex offenders as deviant. The second position views sex offenders as normal men. Thornton's (1992) battery of self-report questionnaires was given to three samples. A dependent sample of offenders, (n=31 ), before and after their treatment and an independent sample of nonoffenders, (n=l6). The results were analysed using Kendall's tau-b for aim one. For aims 2 and 3, t-tests were employed. For the profile analysis, aim 4, multivariate and univariate ANOV AS were employed. The balance of the results favoured the deviancy position. Differences were measurable between the three samples. The nonoffenders have significantly different psychological profiles compared to the offender samples. The treatment received by the offender's is shown to be effective for key attitudes and beliefs that should reduce the risk of reoffending. The treatment does have some failings. The failings are in more indirectly related attitudes and may be a result of design weaknesses. The findings show the need to understand nonoffenders more in order to place offenders attitudes in a culturally normative context.

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Decision making in all areas of social work practice is a challenging and complex process. This study specifically considered professional decision making by probation officers in Northern Ireland. Aim The aim of the study was to explore probation officers' judgements regarding the assessment of recidivism. Method The study was a mixed methods design. The first stage utilised the repertory grid technique (Kelly, 1955) designed to identify the range of factors involved in probation officers' judgements. The sample consisted of fifteen probation officers and the results were analysed using principal components analysis. Factors from the repertory grid, together with issues identified through the literature, were incorporated into a factorial survey (Rossi and Nock, 1982) as the second stage to the study. Ninety-three probation officers completed the survey and the results were analysed through regression analysis. Results The key findings are summarised below: 1. The factorial survey identified that probation officers considered the static factors, number of 'previous convictions ' and 'age' of the offender, as the most significant issues when considering likelihood of reoffending. 2. The dynamic/criminogenic factors of 'substance misuse', 'support networks ', level of 'responsibility' taken for offending behaviour and level of 'cooperation' with supervision, were also considered to be significant factors in the assessment of recidivism. 3. Generally probation officers were not confident in their decision making. They were most confident when the offender presented with twenty or more previous convictions. The level of confidence also rose as the age of the offender being assessed increased. 4. The Assessment, Case management and Evaluation (ACE) assessment tool was considered to be most useful when the number of previous convictions was high. where there was a substance dependency and a volatile and unpredictable demeanour. 5. Probation supervision was considered to be most effective when the offender was cooperative, young , held religious beliefs and attended an organisation and had a history of childhood adversity. 6. Longer serving probation officers tended to be more confident in their decisions while female probation officers were more confident in the effectiveness of probation supervision. Conclusion Probation officers consider the static factors, number of previous convictions and age, to be most significant in the assessment of recidivism. Levels of confidence are also highest when their judgements are based on these factors. Dynamic factors are considered to be most significant when considering the effectiveness of supervision. The introduction of a two-stage model of assessment may therefore be the most appropriate future development. Dissemination The findings of this study will be presented to the Probation Board for Northern Ireland who will circulate to relevant managers and practitioners. The results will also be submitted for publication.

This study examines the applicability of Rational Choice Theories of offending to offenders' actual offending experiences. The Rational Choice theoretical perspective is premised on the idea of the offender as a reasoning, decision-making individual who weighs up potential costs and benefits of a crime to achieve maximum utility. This approach to crime has been influential as part of the dominant ethos of the contemporary Criminal Justice system in England and Wales, and indeed the justice systems of most Western societies. This study relates the Rational Choice Theories of crime to individual offender experiences to investigate if such a process as a decision making calculus can be said to exist within the experience of offending individuals and if so, to explore any factors identified as affecting these decisions. Previous literature in the application of Rational Choice Theory to crime is reviewed, in particular the previous research that entailed interviews or direct observation of individuals concerning what happens when he or she is about to commit a crime. However the number of relevant studies undertaken with a sample of actual offenders rather than a student or other non offending population is small. Previous studies of this kind have tended to focus on a particular offence type, utilising for example all burglar or all shoplifter samples, and therefore results and conclusions reached by these studies can be difficult to generalise to other offence types, though there is some overlap in findings. Within the present study, in depth interviews were conduced with 46 offenders with a range of offending experiences. In this way, the study aimed to assess the applicability of the Rational Choice Theories to a range of offending decisions, bringing together different offences from shoplifting to violent assault. Women were deliberately oversampled relative to the percentage of women in the offending population in order to ensure a balanced viewpoint on decision making. In using a diverse sample group it was proposed that the concepts and ideas emerging from the diverse group could contribute to further development of the Rational Choice approach to crime. To support this theoretical development interview narrative was analysed using techniques adapted from Grounded Theory in order to identify the themes and concepts introduced by the offending individuals in relation to their experiences. In addition to the interviews, focus groups were conducted with a separate cohort of offenders and a cohort of experienced members of Probation Service staff in order to examine the prevalence of the themes emerging from the interviews. Offender narrative was also checked against an independent overview of the offending incident in question to establish the level of accuracy in terms of the observable facts of the offence. The results of this research suggest that there is some evidence that some offenders engage in a decision making processes prior to an offence, though evidence of rationality can be seen to vary both within and between individuals and within and between offence types. Where a decision making calculus was observed, several themes emerged from the narrative, including the bias towards focusing thought on potential positive outcomes, the relative lesser weighting of potential negative outcomes in the thought process, and the relative importance of informal sanctions over formal sanctions. The impact of alcohol and drugs was another emerging theme, with offenders describing their substance use as both an inhibiter, and enabler to their thinking processes. Further, an overarching theme to emerge was the evidence for two goal-regulation type processes identified by the offenders as the main motivator of their behaviour. The first of these is the desire to achieve a want or need through the commission of an offence, which tended to be associated with acquisitive category offences (shoplifting, burglary etc) and the second being to avoid or gain relief from an unpleasant affective state or situation, which tended to be associated with affective or expressive offences. However, despite these process -offence type associations there were once again variances observed within individuals and within offence types. That is, an individual could be seen as offending based on both goal types at different times, and even offence types that appear similar can be a result of different goal seeking processes. Suggestions are made as to how the findings and conclusions of this study fit with, and allow development of existing Rational Choice approaches to crime, and advocate the use of the developed Rational Choice Approach as a tool for the study of individual thinking in the period surrounding an offence. A 'Decision Structure' model based on this developed Rational Choice approach is described, with emphasis on the personal, social and motivational factors present at the time of the offence, providing a framework for exploring the offending decision. Implications of this 'Decision Structure' model on the study of offending and on working with offenders are suggested, and ideas for further studies are presented.

It is essential that those responsible for commissioning special services for mentally disordered offenders (MDOs) take a whole systems approach to the assessment of need and planning of services. National statistics are no substitute for regional and local surveys that collect data on local populations for whom services are being planned. The results of research carried out under the auspices of The Wessex Consortium supplemented by some earlier community studies have been used to form a robust assessment of need upon which to base a local strategy for managing MDOs. Ten publications are submitted, representing a number of projects designed to identify the broad area of need of MDOs, ranging from secure hospital care to various aspects of community care. Although there is an extensive literature on MDOs and their needs, most studies concentrate on secure hospital provision and fail to cover the fuller range of services required to provide a more comprehensive response to need. The submitted works as a whole, represent a unique account of a spectrum of needs of MDOs from a defmed geographical area with some contributions having a more generalised importance. While some of the work has been undertaken by others elsewhere, the results are not directly comparable due to methodological differences, different sample groups/populations, etc. Some of the studies are now being replicated in other parts of the country and the outcome of the research has supported a number of service developments within The Wessex Consortium area and the formation of national policy in respect of forensic psychiatry.

Self-harming and suicidal behaviour in prison are serious concerns, given the continued rise in incidents occurring, particularly in the male estate (Ministry of Justice, 2017). This thesis assesses both objective and subjective measures of impulsivity and aggression; two psychological constructs which have shown promise in enhancing our understanding of these behaviours in respect to the management, treatment and support of those at risk of self-harming. Subjective measures included the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS-11; Patton, Stanford, & Barratt, 1995) and the Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire (BPAQ; Buss & Perry, 1992) and objective measures included four, computer-based behavioural tasks used to assess impulsive decision making (Delay Discounting and Information Sampling Task) and response inhibition (Go/No-Go and Stop Signal Tasks). These measures were tested in young (n = 75) and adult (n = 150), male offenders, in three groups; those currently self-harming and on an ACCT, those assessed as vulnerable and on an ACCT but not currently self-harming and those in the general prison population. The results identified important differences between young and adult offenders; with subjective measures being better able to discriminate between all of the groups in adult offenders than in young offenders. Objective measures of impulsive behaviour were also able to discriminate between all groups in adult male offenders, whereas, in young offenders, these measures only discriminated between those who are vulnerable to self-harm (both at imminent risk and with a history) and the general prison population. These findings strongly support the notion that interventions with individuals who are currently self-harming should not only focus on the prevention of self-harming behaviours but also work to address the negative emotional states associated with this behaviour. Whilst our theoretical knowledge of the different dimensions of aggression and impulsive behaviour is limited, this thesis gives rise to the possibility of using existing programmes in a new and more holistic way.

Social Identity Theory (SIT) suggested that peop le's perception of, and attitudes toward in-group members ultimately derive from their desire to identify with, and belong to groups that are perceived to be superior. Due to the lack of a suitable scale to measure criminal identification among prisoners, the first empirical chapter focused on the development and va lidation of a three-dimensional scale entit led the Measure of Criminal Social Identity (MCSI) with in a sample of recidivistic prisoners. This measure was then applied in further chapters to investigate the role of criminal identity in relation to criminal thinking style. This research thesis supports the predictions of SIT, with the results demonstrating that the consequences of identification with a criminal group being that individuals perceive other in-group members as similar to themselves and consequently they show favouritism in criminal attitudes (thinking styles) and behaviour. Thus, one of the major and original findings of the current project was the identification of the mediating role played by criminal social identity in the relationship between associations with criminal friends and criminal thinking styles. These complex associations were tested within a latent variable framework. Further research also indicated a significant role played by personality traits in the prediction of criminal thinking styles through the utilization of advanced research methodologies. The direct effect of personality traits on criminal thinking style was established through the application of propensity score analysis with postmatching multivariate analysis, marking the first use of this analytic technique in the effort to determine the predictors of criminal thinking. Additionally, the use of sequential moderated multiple regression analysis illuminated the moderating effect that extraversion exerts on the relat ionship between criminal social identity and criminal thinking, a prior to unknown and never before suggested effect.