Restorative justice has fast become a crime control strategy employed across jurisdictions. Its development within youth justice has coincided with the rise of neoliberal policies. However, the focus of neoliberalism on managerialism, efficiency, calculability and control are not congruent with restorative justice. Perhaps unsurprisingly then youth conferencing has the potential to become standardised in order to integrate into the audit culture of criminal justice. What the thesis examines the process and impact of diversionary youth conferencing, as a restorative justice process within the criminal justice system. Diversionary youth conferencing has been fully integrated into the youth justice system of Northern Ireland for over a decade and the findings of this thesis have provided a comprehensive account of how it is being influenced and moulded by the criminal justice system. The research adopted a qualitative, phenomenological methodology, involving non-participant observation and semi-structured interviews with (young people, youth conference coordinators and community representatives. Using triangulation of these four data sources to develop a comprehensive picture of youth conferencing. The theoretical framework of Ritzer's neoliberal McDonaldization thesis (1983) was used to shed light on the research findings. This analysis has shown that during the conferencing process young people can feel vulnerable, ill -equipped, intimidated, labelled as a trouble maker, coerced, abandoned, as though they have 010 one they can trust, forced into apologising and forced into agreeing a conference plan. These findings are disempowering and victimising. Diversionary youth conferencing is a process in which legal requirements, risk and targets have taken the place of harm and equal participation of stakeholders. It has become a McDonaldised process driven by the need for efficiency, calculability and control of risk, resulting in a set 0 f techniques used to administer youth justice.

Background: This study examines how young male offenders are treated in the Sultanate of Oman. Oman has been changing its response to young offenders since 2008. Previous to that year, there were four articles only in the Omani penal law which deal with children and young people who committed crimes. Now there is a separate law under government agencies for dealing with youth offending in Oman who commit and who are vulnerable to crime. So far, little information exists to aid people in understanding the structure' of this system and , how it is exp~rienced by young people and professionals, including social workers: Aims: This thesis seeks to ~ describe and analyse the operation of the youth justice system in Oman in relation to distinct models of youth justice, ~ understand the experiences and perceived needs of young male offenders in the Omani criminal justice system, and ~ investigate the role of social work with and social workers toward young male offenders. Frameworks: This study is informed by three frameworks: (1) Winterdyk's (2002) model of youth justice, (2) Principles of Sharia law, and (3) Foucault's , theory of power relations. A review of the literature indicates that there are many models of youth justice being ~sed and built in developed countries, but there are few references to youth justice in de:reloping countries. Additionally, there is a lack of information about the experiences and needs of young male offenders within the youth justice system. Moreover, the roles and tasks of social workers need to be studied within the youth justice system.

This thesis looks at the experiences of a number of young black people in England. based on a piece of research conducted in Bristol and London. Using an ethnographic approach, the research aims to generate a deeper understanding of the lived experiences of the research participants, of what it means (for them) to be young and black, and on the fringes of, or involved, in the youth justice system. A review of the available literature suggests that young black people are disproportionately over-represented in crime figures. The review further suggests that racism is at the heart of their disproportionate over-representation. It is the conclusion of most of the literature that young black people constitute one of the most disaffected groups, and are often victims of racism and social exclusion. A total of ninety-two contacts in a number of group settings, spread across the two locations, including twenty individual interviews in one of these locations provides the evidence in this research to support the conclusions found in the literature. The findings from the group contacts and individual interviews suggest that young black people's experiences of racial discrimination start even before formal contact begins with the police - often the gateway into criminalisation. Often, it starts from the school system and this manifests within the dynamics of their relationship with teachers. Both the evidence from the literature and the interview accounts from this research, suggest that once involved in the youth justice system. the discrimination continues at every stagefrom policing to courts and pnson - and this results In their disproportionately hi~h visibility in crime statistics. Despite the gro\\ing research interest in the subject of young black people and their expenences of racism and criminalisation, there remains a gap in kno\\ledge. The evidence suggests that much of what is known is statistical. Of course, statistical knowledge is helpful but it tells us little about the personal. or lived experiences of tllOS~ about whom the statistics exist. This knowledge gap is the justification for this research. The research attempts to explain. from the point of vie\\ of the research participants. and using their own words, what shape racial discrimination against them tak~s. and how it contributes to. and exacerbates their sense of social exclusion. alienation from society and criminalisation. In this sense, the research provides an opportunity to give a voice to young black people and, by so doing. promote good practice in working \\ith them amongst relevant agencies. III

Following the 1998 Good Friday! Belfast Agreement, Northern Ireland has experienced unprecedented social and political change, its communities in transition from armed conflict. In 2007 devolution of powers from the British Government to the Northern Ireland Assembly was finally secured, with policing and criminal justice devolved in 2010. Since the late 1990s, the UK Government has consolidated 'early intervention' strategies targeting children and young people considered 'at risk' of 'negative outcomes', including their involvement in 'anti-social' or 'offending' behaviour. Pre-devolution these strategies influenced policy development in Northern Ireland, albeit with significant differences reflecting the jurisdiction's particular circumstances. The thesis examines the theoretical underpinnings of early intervention aimed at prevention of offending and the impact of 'risk' discourses in the development of early intervention programmes. Adopting a critical the, theoretical framework, it synthesises debates about social constructions of childhood, promotion of a children's rights agenda and the overarching dynamic of structural inequality. Following a detailed policy review, the primary research explores the implementation of Northern Ireland's 'Early Intervention for the Prevention of Offending' Programme, introduced in 2008. Funded by the Department of Health, Social Services and Public Safety and the (then) Northern Ireland Office, this Programme was delivered by three independent NGOs through five discrete Projects. Conducted in 2010, the qualitative research included semi-structured interviews with children aged 8-14, focus groups with Project staff and structured 'interviews with Project Workers - mapping the Programme's development and implementation from contrasting perspectives. Central to the thesis is the impact on state policy and professional practice of adult assumptions regarding 'normal' and 'acceptable' behaviour for 'children' and 'youth'. The research findings are critically analysed in the final chapter to draw out tensions and contradictions implicit in interventions that seek to address the complex needs and entitlements of children whose lives and experiences reflect the dynamics of structural inequalities.

A large body of research exists in relation to youth crime. However less is known about the contexts of children engaged in serious offending behaviour and participating in criminal networks. This study, adopting a case study design, examines the behaviour of a criminal network operating in Greentown in 2010-2011 . Greentown is a pseudonym for a Garda SUb-District in Ireland, located outside Dublin. A network map was constructed for the study by Garda analysts using police incident data to position individuals on the map who had been involved in either burglary or drugs for sale and supply in Greentown in 2010-2011. Importantly this map indicated relationships where two or more individuals were detected for the same offence. The map was used as a reference tool to interview Greentown Garda about the activities and contexts of the individuals identified. A technique called Battleships was designed to give the researcher access to case related data, producing authentic narrative, while protecting the identities of the individuals involved. The study finds that there was plausible evidence to suggest a network effect for certain children in Greentown in 2010-2011. The study also identifies potential applications for the methods used to progress further research in this area.

This thesis examines the use of long-term detention for juveniles convicted of certain grave and very serious crimes (excluding murder). The study incorporates a detailed exploration of the law together with other substantive issues of contemporary criminal and youth justice. Centrally, the research focuses on s.91 of the Powers of Criminal Courts (Sentencing) Act 2000 (formerly s. 53(2) of the Children and Young Persons Act 1933). This law provides the higher courts with special powers to detain juveniles to longer periods of detention above the usual 24-month limit. This separate system of law and justice for the most serious juvenile offenders is subjected to rigorous theoretical and empirical scrutiny. At its heart, the study seeks to explain the mechanisms and ramifications of sentencing juveniles to long periods of detention. The cumulative research findings are based on a thorough review of the literature combined with an extensive fieldwork project undertaken at six selected young offender institutions. Interviews were conducted with 142 young prisoners (aged 15-21) convicted of violent and other very serious crimes and sentenced to long periods of detention. From a detailed analysis of key index offence and offender characteristics, the study examines the experiences of the respondents from the pre-conviction stage of the legal process and following sentencing. The varying levels of offence-gravity are considered within the context of contemporary sentencing theory and the use of proportionate sentences. In addition, the experiences of a remand to prison custody, trial and sentencing at the crown court, and detention in a young offender institution are described and critically evaluated. The research findings juxtapose the nature and extent of youthful offender vulnerability with the commission of very serious crimes and a system of justice most usually reserved for adult offenders. The tension between these elements represents one of the most complex challenges for contemporary criminal justice and society.

Sport has been promoted as having potential to contribute to crime prevention, rehabilitation and reduction (Coalter 2007; Nichols 2007). This rationale was accelerated by „New‟ Labour Government‟s policies (Coalter 2012). The interrelationship between sport, adult crime reduction and social exclusion provide a focus for this thesis. An initial policy review and literature review is followed by two empirical studies which investigate the use of a sports-based programme by an ex-offender (aged 39) and explore the attitudes via semi-structured interviews of gatekeepers (n=21) towards the use of sport for crime reduction purposes with adult populations. Key findings demonstrate that the provision of a sports-based programme for an adult ex-offender has the potential to assist the rehabilitation and resettlement process. There is evidence that the links between sport, career development and employability were particularly important amongst this older age band. There were mixed views from the gatekeepers towards the use of sport for crime reduction, particularly its potential amongst adult delinquents. There were instances where sport was being utilised in crime reduction practices, this was done on an ad hoc basis. Gatekeepers demonstrated concerns over raising expectations of offenders through sports-based qualifications and the public‟s negative perceptions of sport as an „easy option‟ for offenders. It is essential to adopt an holistic approach when examining sports within a crime reduction context, concentrating on those problems experienced by individuals engaged in sports-based programmes as opposed to the intervention itself (Crabbe 2000, 2008; Coalter 2012). Any quest to change behaviour patterns associated with crime will involve complex associations which create a myriad of outcomes (Coalter et al. 2000). In order to understand which approaches work for which subjects in what conditions, there is a need to obtain a deeper understanding of the complexities of participant‟s interactions with initiatives (Morris et al. 2003; Coalter 2012).

This thesis is concerned with young men in prison and the manner in which identity processes impact on the transition from custody to community. The research is grounded in the participants' own accounts of their experiences and utilises an interpretative phenomenological analysis. Having contextualised the research with a detailed review of the relevant social psychological and criminological literature, Study 1 aims to explore the experiences of young men preparing for release from prison, and draws on the social psychological concepts of identity and reputation. Responding to the fact that criminological research tends to have a predominantly urban focus, Study 2 is concerned with pathways into offending and the return home for young prisoners from rural parts of the south west of England. Further highlighting cultural and community issues, Study 3 details the case study of a young Gypsy-Traveller in prison and after returning to the community. Turning to the impact of families, and in particular, parenthood on young men in prison, Study 4 introduces the relevance of a parenting identity on attitudes towards offending and life after release from prison. Drawing on the social psychological concept of possible selves, Study 5 explores the future self concept of young fathers in prison, whilst Study 6 investigates the types of parenting possible selves that are generated by this group of young prisoners. Concluding the focus on young fathers in prison, Study 7 describes the process and impact of delivering a parenting education programme in prison. Study 8 explores the experiences of family members who have previously been ignored in this area of research - the younger siblings of young men in prison. The research is summarised with a discussion detailing the impact of the research findings on the existing body of literature as well as policy and practice implications.

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