The permanent exclusion (PE) of young people from school is frequently linked to negative social and academic outcomes, providing the dominant rationale for reducing the numbers of young people who are permanently excluded. The aim of the systemic literature review was to explore what is known about interventions that aim to reduce the number of school exclusions. I conducted a mixed methods review asking the questions, ‘which interventions are most effective in reducing numbers of school exclusions?’ and, ‘why are some interventions effective in reducing school exclusions?’ The prevailing themes which emerged were named positivity, motivation and communication and it was felt that these were important elements of effective intervention in reducing numbers of school exclusions. Informed by gaps highlighted in the literature review, the aim of the empirical research was to triangulate these findings with theory generated from young people’s perceptions using a grounded theory approach. 18 young people were asked questions loosely based on the positive method Appreciative Inquiry in order to ascertain their perceptions of ‘what works’ to support their behaviour effectively using focus groups and individual semi-structured interviews. The main thematic categories created were learning, self-esteem, environment, control and change of feelings, and these were related together to form a theory. The young people’s theory suggested that self-esteem was a central element and was interrelated to the categories of learning, environment and control. They suggested that in a positive system these factors would cause a positive change of feelings then a positive change in behaviour. The high level of triangulation between the literature and young people’s perceptions suggests that the type of intervention may not be as important as how intervention or prevention is implemented and then perceived by the young people. However, the findings suggest that schools and classrooms that promote positive self-esteem, young people’s control, good communication and use of language based on feelings, may be effective in reducing PEs and are perceived by young people to be effective at supporting their behaviour. The high corroboration with wider research suggests that this theory may describe more than just challenging behaviour and therefore it may be applied more broadly to learning behaviour and social behaviour.

This paper begins with a systematic review of the literature that looks at particular approaches and models to support girls aged 11-16 overcome the adverse effects of bullying. This revealed that girls seem to have less effective problem solving abilities in dealing with bullying. In addition, the review identified some potential criteria for group work, for example the age range, as it appeared that interventions were more effective with year 7 pupils (aged 11-12). The implications of the review for further research were considered and this informed an empirical study. A bridging document is presented in this paper between the systematic review and empirical study. This is to provide a rationale for the research and the links to the systematic review. In addition, it provides the underpinning epistemological position that guided the research, in particular the methodological and analytical approaches. The empirical study presented in this paper explored the benefits of a client centred approach to group work for girls, with a particular focus on ‘friendship’. This was considered within the context of the Targeting Mental Health in Schools (TAMHS) project (DfE, DCSF, 2008) where early intervention was considered as being crucial. The group work was facilitated by the author and supported by school staff. Structured ‘change’ interviews were used at pre, post and follow up stages in order to gather the participant’s views on the group work. Data was also gathered at these stages using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (Goodman, 1999). A thematic analysis was carried out on the pre and post interviews. This resulted in 3 main themes for each data set. The ‘change pathway’ for each participant was considered. The potential implications for future research in this field and practice as an Educational Psychologist are considered. Key words: Bullying, friendship, intervention, group work

During the 1990s, the numbers of pupils being permanently excluded from school increased dramatically (Hodge, 1998). Despite concern amongst educationalists and the government, changes in the law and approaches aimed at reducing exclusion, the level of permanent exclusion remains high. Studies such as Kinder et al. (1999) and Gilbertson (1998), have demonstrated that exclusion is a significant issue within education, and that the consequences of being permanently excluded are negative for young people. Some groups of pupils are at higher risk of exclusion than others, and some of these groups are considered to be already vulnerable to educational disadvantage. Educational psychologists are able to work at an individual and whole school level, to support and advise schools and the local authority, in meeting the needs of pupils at risk of exclusion. The present study is underpinned by social constructionism, narrative psychology, systems theory, and attachment theory. Research on the topic of permanent exclusion has explored a range of issues, including factors that contribute to the causes of exclusion and approaches to reducing exclusion. Research relevant to the present study has focused on exploring teacher and pupil perception of exclusion. The study aimed to collect excluded pupils' narratives about their experiences of exclusion. These narratives were then used to guide focus group meetings with teachers. The aim of the focus groups was to explore teachers' perceptions of exclusions from two contrasting schools. The study used a qualitative methodology, and data was collected using narrative interviews and focus groups. Data collection took place within a single urban local authority in England. Six participants took part in the narrative interviews- these were permanently excluded pupils who were attending Pupil Referral Units (PRUs). Focus groups took place within two secondary schools. One of the schools had a high level of permanent exclusion and the other was a low excluding school. A range of different perceptions was identified within the narrative interviews, and each pupil's story of their exclusion was unique. It was possible, however, to identify a number of similarities between the focus groups. These included pupils having negative relationships with teachers in mainstream school; experiencing a period of difficulty and disengagement preceding their exclusion; regret over being excluded ii and feeling that things were going better for them in the PRU. Analysis of the focus group data revealed that teachers perceive exclusion to be a complex issue with multiple causes. Teachers perceived that skilled and dedicated staff, and good communication within schools, were important, in order to reduce exclusion. A number of implications for the role of educational psychologists were identified. These included supporting teachers to understand pupils' perspectives, and working at a whole school level to help develop systemic approaches to supporting pupils with challenging behaviour. Suggestions for further research included exploring the perceptions of a range of professionals who may work with excluded pupils; and further research exploring sharing pupil perspectives with teachers and teacher perspectives with pupils.

The systematic review set out to explore factors across studies which aimed to reduce rates of disciplinary exclusion amongst "at risk‟ pupils. 10 studies describing interventions applied across a range of settings were included after inclusion criteria had been applied. Methods of data collection included qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods and participants included pupils of primary and secondary school age. A range of factors (including involvement of parents and taking a holistic approach) were identified as influential in successfully reducing exclusion. Multi-agency working was the most frequently used strategy. The review indicated that interventions can successfully reduce exclusions of pupils already identified as "at risk", however it also highlighted the important influence of the underlying school ethos, in how behaviour is understood and subsequently managed. The systematic literature review indicated that most studies centred on secondary school aged pupils and schools across mixed socio-economic areas. Therefore the empirical research project focussed on the approaches and beliefs underpinning practices in excluding and non-excluding primary schools in areas of high social deprivation. It aimed to identify differences in beliefs and perceptions of practices in schools between excluding and non-excluding schools. Focus groups and interviews were conducted and thematic analysis identified differences between groups across 10 themes. Statements were used to create a questionnaire which was subsequently completed by 128 school staff across 16 schools. Analysis indicated significant differences in responses between groups on the themes of "responsibility", "clarity", "consistency", "behaviour management", "beliefs about inclusion" and "beliefs about reducing exclusion". These findings provide support for previous literature emphasising the importance of creating a positive, inclusive school ethos that fosters positive behaviour amongst pupils. The bridging document outlines how the area of research was identified and provides further explanation of the philosophical assumptions underpinning the chosen methodology. Ethical considerations and the broader political context are also discussed.

As a school principal approaching retirement, I began to keep a journal in which I recorded the daily business in which I was absorbed. And, through review of and reflection on my entries, I tried to understand myself a little better. Critical incident methodology provided the tools by which I sought to process a morass of experiences. I identified two themes which provided insight into my role. One concerned School Leadership, the other was around the pastoral responses to students facing exclusion. I determined to present this material as an ethnodrama involving two actors. I entitled it, 'Home Straits?'. The pun was intended, the question mark invited investigation (I have been asked if the title was a typo): at the start of my EdD journey I believed that I was in the final phase of my career; metaphorically, I believed that I was in the home straight. In reviewing my journal entries I recognised that the metaphor aligning my experiences to the final stretch of a linear journey was inaccurate and inappropriate. I needed another conceit for my late career. A 'strait' is a narrow passage of water connecting two large areas of water. It is usually treacherous, a condition reflected in its metaphoric use in plural form to describe a situation characterised by trouble or difficulty. I had hoped that the play on words would draw attention to the tension between the two metaphors: one suggesting a gallop to the finish; the other, a struggle to stay afloat in choppy waters. But there is another tension played out: that caused by the search for form and voice as I seek to present the personal in a mode amenable to the wider engagement of a theatre audience as well as an academic one.

Previous research into pupil experiences of exclusion has focussed on permanent exclusion from a range of different settings. This study provides an in-depth exploration of the experiences of pupils from one secondary school who have been excluded for a fixed-period and rentegrated back into the same setting. The aims of the research were to highlight pupil voice around experiences of exclusion and reintegration and to develop an understanding of the meaning pupils have constructed around these experiences within their school community.

This study attempts to understand the practices and attitudes regarding the high numbers of students who are excluded on fixed term and permanent bases from an 11-18 secondary school in Derbyshire. The research process will use a case study approach that aims to understand the underlying reasons for the high exclusion rates and consider how the school culture needs to change in order to reduce these exclusions. The case study approach will look at the practices and attitudes towards exclusions through the voices of a range of school stakeholders using semistructured interviews, questionnaires, data studies, group discussion around behaviour and observations of students labelled as having Social. Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties - SEBD.

School-based behavioural standards and the means to best improve these continue to be a topic for discussion amongst educators, politicians, the general public and the media. Discourses around behaviour management have been dominated by behaviourism and to an increasing extent, a discourse of 'zero tolerance' (Cameron, 1998; Clough, Garner, Pardeck and Yeun, 2005). Additional psychological discourses have emerged alongside these influenced by cognitive psychology and within recent education policy, the notion of the 'whole child'. However, concerns have been raised that such discourses imply a within-child focus that potentially alienates pupils. What is more, it is argued that many dominant discourses fail to acknowledge the socially constructed nature of behaviour and the political, economic and practical reasons why institutions such as schools may wish to maintain such discourses as dominant. Restorative Justice (RJ) is explored and promoted providing an alternative framework which has greater affinity with a social constructionist understanding of behaviour (e.g. Zehr, 2002). The need to understand how to effectively promote such an alternative (Hopkins, 2004; Morrison, 2007) forms the basis of this thesis, which through a case study of one Yorkshire secondary school, looks to expose dominant discourses, showing the implications of these, and how alternative discourses such as those supporting RJ might be constructed. Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) has been utilised to analyse transcripts of three focus groups held in the secondary school, as well as the school's behaviour policy (Fairclough, 2001; van Dijk, 2001). This analysis is discussed in relation to three research questions: What are the dominant discourses on behaviour amongst school staff within a secondary school?; How are certain voices privileged over others?; What are the implications for the construction of alternative discourses and in particular one of relationships and RJ? Further discussion is given to the literature and the network of practice within which those discourses are located (Fairclough, 2001).

Working in partnership with parents and carers is a recurring theme within education, especially for children with special educational needs. The evidence suggests that although there is some progress towards shared endeavours the reality does not match the rhetoric. There are particular difficulties at the home school interface where behaviour is the issue. This research set out to explore the perceptions of parents about their interactions with schools concerning their child's behaviour and what they found more and less supportive. The study investigated personal and social constructs influencing these perceptions and also looked at related outcomes for both parent and child. The findings have led to the development of an original theoretical model which suggests that definitions and attributions for behaviour interact with school ethos and messages about power and partnership. These in turn determine how the school communicates with parents, whether teachers both relate to parents' perception of their parenting role and take account of the whole child `in loco parentis', and the level of awareness related to parental contexts, including cultural background. When all of these `connections' work well, schools are able to develop the positive interactions that have the best chance of generating real change. This research confirms that appropriate early assessment and intervention for behavioural difficulty is crucial both for parents and for children.

This thesis explores the scale of bullying in Taiwanese schools and the impact of school anti-bullying policies. Critical realism is used in this policy-related research to argue against current empirical bullying research mainstream and how it may be possible to conduct scientific policy research in Taiwan. The thesis is divided into two parts, covering the literature review and methodology (four chapters in part one) and analysis of the case study in Taiwan (three chapters in part two). This research endeavours to link critical realism with empirical research to deepen our understanding of the school anti-bullying policy structure in Taiwan. The thesis begins with the exploration of the conceptualisation and development of bullying research in Chapter 2 whose main purpose is to capture the definition of bullying and the prevalence of school bullying in different countries and then illustrate the main research areas and the international trend of bullying research. Following Chapter 2, bullying-related theories and approaches to bullying research are highlighted in Chapter 3 and policy process theories and school anti-bullying policies are touched on in Chapter 4 in term of policy agenda setting, policy formulation and policy implementation consideration. A crucial role is played by Chapter 5 which focuses on the philosophical discussion of critical social research (ontology, epistemology and methodology) with reference to the appropriate use of practical methods and related ethical issues. This chapter sets out to explain how critical realism could function in this research to bridge the gap between the literature review and the case study research. In part two, three chapters discuss the formation of school anti-bullying policy in Taiwan. Chapter 6, which is an historical inquiry, illuminates the trajectory of school regulation policies with regard to the democratic transformation of a political system since 1945 in Taiwan. After the historical discussion, light is shed on empirical inquiry into school anti-bullying policy in Chapter 7, which analyses different debates over school anti-bullying policy and power struggles between four different policy stakeholders. Most importantly, Chapter 8 attempts to theorise the ‘generative mechanism’ behind the policy making process and the inferential logic of knowledge production is also considered at the end of this chapter. In addition, reflection on the generative mechanism and collective agency of community and professional groups in policy making are also involved. The concluding chapter reflects on the use of theories, methodology and the research findings in answer to the research questions and elaborates on the compatibility of critical realism, the critical qualitative case study and school anti-bullying policy research in Taiwan. To be reflexive this chapter finishes by looking at further research directions for policy making and practice between political governance, policy research and school practice.