Background: The aim of the research was to identify possible predisposing and maintaining risk markers for presence, severity and stability of challenging behaviour. Method: Three studies were conducted: 1) a meta-analysis of epidemiological research, 2) a study of the characteristics of children with challenging behaviour and a comparison group, and 3) an observational study of functional communication Results: Results of the meta-analysis suggest that degree of intellectual disability, autism and communication impairments are associated with challenging behaviour. Results of the second study suggest that a) compulsive behaviour and autism spectrurr behaviour are associated with presence but neither severity nor stability of challenging behaviour, and b) greater degree of intellectual disability, stereotyped behaviour, and poor communication and socialisation skills were not associated with presence, severity or stability. Results of the third study suggest that children with frequent challenging behaviour display functionally communicative behaviour. Discussion: Compulsive behaviour and autism spectrum behaviour are possible predisposing risk markers that within an early intervention strategy could be used to identify children at high-risk for challenging behaviour. Communication impairment was not a central risk marker. Further research is needed to examine how risk markers interact with operant processes to increase risk for maintenance of challenging behaviour

The 1996 Tomlinson Report of the Committee on Students with Learning Difficulties and/or Disabilities (SLDD) recommended a series of inclusive learning strategies to enhance provision for said group. The umbrella organisation of the post compulsory education sector, The Further Education Funding Council (FEFC), agreed to the majority of its recommendations, its own inspectorate previously noting concerns in SLDD provision. The purpose of this study is to examine the extent within English further education colleges the recommendations of The Tomlinson Report have been implemented. The study examines FEFC inspectorate grades, the views of college managers and lecturers and the students themselves from 1999 to 2000 to gauge if there have been improvements by inclusive implementation. Topics specifically addressed are staff development, measuring benefits by college self analysis, collaboration, quality assurance, the individual learning process, systems leading to inclusive developments and the college culture. The study's findings suggest enormous disparities occur between colleges in the quality of SLDD provision, only one measured as fully inclusive, the majority meeting an inclusive measure of 'no policy: implementation in some faculties/departments/schools'. Higher levels of inclusive implementation were found in colleges who had conducted a detailed self appraisal of their present position and subsequently instigated new quality assurance systems lined to measurable performance indicators. The approach was particularly effective when student views were noted and the inclusive strategies supported by comprehensive staff development activities. The study found only a small minority of colleges appeared to be effectively organised in such procedures. A series of recommendations for improvement are suggested, the most significant one being a Code of Practice within further education akin to that of the school sector. The study bridges the legislation of the 1992 Further and Higher Education Act to The Learning and Skills Act 2000. The legislative change does not impact on the study, the same funding methodologies and vocational criteria applying during transition. Recurrent themes are the exclusion of students with severe learning difficulties and profound and multiple learning difficulties due to the strict vocational emphasis at the core of both Acts though hope is expressed the recent legislative change might reintroduce more widely non-vocational options and redress this imbalance. Concern too is expressed at the competitive, market-led approaches colleges embrace and the negative effect this has on SLDD groups, particularly in terms of transition into college and collaborative arrangements. The positive aspects of the Special Needs and Disability Act 2001 are welcomed though concern is expressed at its limited definition of disability. The study's findings are not always complimentary to colleges approaches to inclusive implementation and the conclusion is rather critical, the data suggesting the position to be unsatisfactory, students with learning difficulties and/or disabilities unnecessarily remaining a disadvantaged 'group.

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Background: Education has been identified as a fundamental human right. Inclusion in post-secondary and higher education for people with intellectual disability is linked to increased opportunities and improved quality of life. Aim: This research aimed to explore the lived experiences and investigate the meaning(s) that people with intellectual disability construct of their experience in post-secondary and higher education in the Republic of Ireland. Method: Study participants were 27 people between the ages of 21 and 57 who attended post-secondary or higher level courses. Participants' narratives of their expenences were captured Via audio-taped interviewing, and then transcribed following the interpretive process in Heideggerian hermeneutic phenomenology. This involved adapting Crist and Tanner's (2003) five stages of analysis supplemented by the four steps recommended in the Listening Guide (Gilligan et al. 2003). These steps included creating I-Poems from the interviews, which offered a unique opportunity for the voices of participants to be heard during interpretation and dissemination. Findings: Led by Heidegger's philosophy of identifying those things that need to be thought about, the findings highlight the transformational role of education. Participants experienced going to post-secondary or higher education as valuable and positive. They described the experience by detailing opportunities in areas such as improving literacy and learning new skills. Their experiences were interpreted as creating conditions that increased their independence, self-worth and self-belief. The meanings drawn from the experience reflect an understanding of the benefits of inclusion, but also highlight the emerging realities of the limitations caused by having an intellectual disability and being dependent on services for support. Conclusion: The methodology used has resulted in a unique method of interpretation which gives a greater insight into the experiences of people with intellectual disability. Recommendations for research, practice and policy contribute to addressing the deficits in supporting people with intellectual disability in postsecondary or higher education.

There is a dearth of qualitative research in relation to the views of young people with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) educated within mainstream education. A sense of school belonging (SOSB) has been largely neglected among the UK literature (Frederickson et al., 2007), especially in relation to particular types of special educational needs, such as ASD. The aim of the study was to explore a SOSB in young people with ASD in mainstream post primary education. An explanatory sequential mixed methods design was employed. An initial quantitative phase involving four Key Stage 3 pupils with ASD was followed by a qualitative phase involving two pupils with ASD and used a multiple case study approach for the purposes of in-depth analysis. A participant selection model was utilised to select pupils for the qualitative phase. The pupils attended a large mainstream post primary school in Northern Ireland. Thematic analysis of pupil interview transcripts identified two overarching themes for the pupil with a high SOSB and included construction of belonging and strategies engendering a SOSB. Four overarching themes were identified from the pupil with a low SOSB: levels of acceptance, levels of support, school geography and perceptions of behaviour. Cross case analysis identified support as a common theme. The value of listening to the voice of young people with ASD regarding their experiences of mainstream education and a SOSB is evident from this research. Even within this small case study the heterogenic nature of ASD is apparent as there are marked differences across pupils from both phase one and phase two of the study. The pupil with a high SOSB conveyed positive experiences of school life. The pupil with a low SOSB appeared to have frequent negative experiences within school. However, generalisations cannot be made from this study due to its small scale nature.

Conduct disorder (and associated anger and aggression) is the most common mental health difficulty experienced by adolescent males. Given the detrimental impact of poorly managed anger and aggression to both the individual and society, investment in effective interventions for this client group is warranted. Research into effective therapeutic interventions for anger and aggression in adolescents has historically been somewhat narrow, focusing largely on a social-cognitive-behavioural framework. In addition, little work focusing specifically on males exists. This thesis aims to develop, implement and evaluate a new intervention for adolescent males with anger difficulties. Part one of this portfolio presents a systematic literature review of recent research into psychological interventions for adolescent males with difficulties managing anger and aggression. The findings of the review highlighted that the field is still predominated by interventions based on a social-cognitive-behavioural approach. Whilst this is effective for some, it is not effective for all. Further issues included methodological difficulties, a continued lack of interventions specifically for males, and a lack of UK-based studies. Part two presents an empirical paper of a feasibility study investigating the acceptability and effectiveness of a novel intervention for adolescent males with anger difficulties. The intervention was a short-term group programme based on Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), delivered in a school setting. Qualitative findings suggested that the participants experienced a number of benefits from the programme and found it acceptable. Quantitative findings suggested a more mixed picture of results; however, inferences made from the quantitative data were limited by the small sample and difficulties with measures. Suggestions for future research are provided.

This study aims to critically explore how Saudi teachers understand the phenomena of inclusion, disability and the label of intellectual disability. It also seeks to research the extent to which the two implemented models of inclusion/special education in Saudi mainstream schools respond to the academic and social requirements of disabled learners, to uncover the disabling barriers and to offer suggestions for ending or, at least minimising, inequalities and exclusion of children labelled disabled from and within Saudi mainstream schools. Drawing on theories from a range of disciplines, including educational psychology, critical disability studies and education theory, I explored these issues through conducting in-depth semi- structured interviews with 31 participant teachers on an individualised basis. My thematic analysis has generated four key findings. First, the vast majority of participant teachers have misconceptions around inclusion, disability and the label of intellectual disability. They conflate integration and inclusion, locate ‘the problem’ of disability within-child and view people labelled with intellectual disabilities as ‘unable’ thus less than human. Second, participant teachers have different views about the two models of inclusion/special education implemented in schools where they teach. They have positive viewpoints about the mainstream classrooms model but negative perspectives about the self-contained classrooms model. Third, the analysis also uncovers that mainstream schools where participant teachers teach are fettered with disabling barriers and practices and that the Saudi education system are bound up with ableism. Fourth, to eliminate or, at least reduce, inequalities and exclusion of people labelled disabled from and within Saudi mainstream schools, participant teachers suggest raising awareness, creating an inclusive space for all, reviewing, enforcing and developing inclusive policies and regulations and promoting the core values of inclusive education. I also offer further recommendations for the Saudi Ministry of Education to take into consideration in Chapter 8 (section 8.5).

Nurture groups (NGs) are a form of specialist educational provision for children experiencing social, emotional and behavioural difficulties (SEBD). The guiding principles behind NGs are drawn from attachment theory. The aim of this study was to investigate the lived experience of children attending a NG and to consider the implications of children's views in respect of future provision for children with SEBD in schools. In particular, it sought to explore the culture developed within the NG; find out what was important to the children in the NG; and identify positive and problematic aspects associated with the NG provision. The focus of the study emerged following a review of the literature around NGs and SEBD. It was felt that there was a gap in the literature whereby the views of children attending NGs were rarely sought, with researchers preferring to investigate the effectiveness of NGs or to work with retrospective accounts from ex NG pupils. The empirical stance of the study is interpretivist in nature while an ethnographic approach was chosen as both a framework for the process of data collection and as an analytical tool. Six children (aged 4 - 7 years) attending one NG participated in the study along with the NG teacher and teaching assistant. Within the ethnographic framework of the study, a combination of: participant-observation; participant- generated photographs; photo-elicitation interviews and drawing sessions; and semi- structured interviews with staff were used. These methods were employed longitudinally over the course of seven months. The resulting data was then analysed to draw out common and individual themes important to the participants. Significant to the children in the study were relationships with other children and staff in the NG, the importance of play and special toys, the routines and rituals of the NG day and outdoor experiences. Other important themes were: the ambiguous nature of 'educational attachment' and how this is interpreted by professionals involved with NGs; the practical problems associated with NGs that deviate from the 'classic' model; the children's sense of belonging to the NG; and their sense of isolation in their home schools. Based on the conclusions of the research, a number of areas that may have implications for Educational Psychologists and other education professionals are discussed, as are suggestions for future research.