The main goal of this study is the development of comprehensive strategies aimed at improving break time practices in Israeli schools. The issue of school break time as an integral part of the school day has not yet been addressed in educational research in Israel. This qualitative case study involved more than 200 participants from 2 Israeli primary schools, representing 3 groups - principals, break time supervising teachers, and pupils. The study examines the perspectives of the research stakeholders on the purpose and implementation of break time. The recruitment of participants was carried out using purposive and convenience sampling methods. Five data collection tools were employed: documentary analysis, individual semistructured interviews with the three groups of stakeholders, focus group with teachers, observation of school yards and lobbies, and a questionnaire for pupils. Data were analyzed through thematic analysis, in which inductive coding was used. Study findings reveal that break time is perceived by teachers and principals as an energy-consuming, ill-planned part of the school day. Their main concerns are safety and disciplinary matters. A sense of frustration caused by break time duty problems, deteriorating discipline in schools, and lack of hope for improvement in teacher authority, was dominant in teacher responses. Little consensus was found on whether or not break time should be structured. Both principals and teachers underestimate the role of pupil-initiated free play. Most teachers underestimate the meaningful educational opportunities present during break time. Pupils perceive break time as a time for rest, game playing, and freedom from teacher control. Findings suggest that the preferred way of spending break time and the role of a duty teacher are perceived differently by pupils of different ages and gender groups. This study identifies a number of break time issues that have not yet received attention, such as enjoying a meal as a part of peer socialization, and ethical problems related to free play or involving playthings brought from home. Compared to previous research, this study suggests that feelings of loneliness experienced by pupils during break time increase as they grow older, reinforcing the idea of using break time as a platform for practice and improvement of social skills. The study concludes with recommendations for making social education a significant and planned part of the school curriculum, using the break time environment as a natural setting, integrated with the classroom. In addition, break time should be dealt with as part of the teacher-training process.

This thesis focuses on the barriers that women principals face in Cypriot primary schools. This research had six aims including the overarching aim. The overarching aim of this research is to examine the career progress of female principals in Cyprus primary schools and to address the apparent under-representation of women in leadership positions. The research also aimed to establish the barriers that female leaders face in order to be promoted as principals, and how they can be overcome. Another aim was to establish how gender issues play a part in creating barriers to promotion as a school principal and how these may subsequently affect them in leading the school. A third consideration was to comprehend what barriers women may have faced in their childhood years and to establish whether, and to what extent, female leaders face internal and external barriers in Cyprus schools. The research also sought to identify the support or enablers that may facilitate women’s career progression. The enquiry was conducted using mixed method approaches, including both surveys and interviews. These quantitative and qualitative methods were combined to facilitate methodological triangulation. The data were collected sequentially, with the surveys preceding the interviews. This sequence was planned to obtain generalisable data first and to secure self-selected participants for the interviews. The quantitative data were collected through a whole population questionnaire survey administered to all women principals (C.187) in Cyprus primary schools, using Survey Monkey. Qualitative data were collected, from all twenty women principals who agreed to be interviewed. The findings show that societal culture and discrimination, the influence of the patriarchal family, family and domestic responsibilities, the intersection between women’s age, sex and the location of schools and professional development, were powerful influences on the career trajectory of these women primary school principals. These themes recur in several places, showing the pervasive nature of these influences on women principals in Cyprus. The thesis reports these findings and connects them to other literature on women principals. The present work is informed by contemporary feminist and gender theories.

The literature on new principals tends to focus on the challenges of incumbents. However, there is little detailed evidence of the nature of their attempts at reshaping or enhancing school culture, which may be their greatest single professional challenge. A significant number of primary schools in Trinidad and Tobago are currently headed by new principals and concerns have been publicly raised at the national level about these new principals’ fit to schools. This study was designed to investigate the nature of the interactions between new principals’ leadership and their inherited school cultures in primary schools of different effectiveness states - high, average and low achievement - which face challenging circumstances. It also investigates the impact of these interactions on school processes, new principals’ emotions and professional development and student academic outcomes. The thesis adopts an explanatory, multiple-case study approach that conceptualizes principal leadership as relational, recognizing that whilst a new principal may wish to re-culture and restructure a school, the existing school’s culture and the new principal’s own professional judgment may combine to influence his/her ability to do so. The main research method used for engaging with this work was a critical incident technique. Findings reveal the complex nature of the leadership-school culture interplay and the factors which influence: a) the various manifestations of the leadership-school culture interactions and, b) the degree of change observed at the schools. Associated implications and areas for future research are also discussed.

This thesis draws on socialisation theory and the stage theory of headship to explore the professional and organisational socialisation experiences of new Cypriot primary headteachers. The study examines the ways in which new heads have been prepared for headship and formed their professional identity as heads. It also offers insights into novice headteachers’ socialisation in schools, the challenges they encountered upon assuming headship, as well as their progression through stages of headship during their early years in post. The study employed a sequential mixed-methods approach comprised of unstructured face-to-face interviews, a survey of all 90 novice primary headteachers appointed during 2009-2010, in-depth semi-structured interviews with 12 novice headteachers and follow-up interviews with ten of them two years later to shed further light on the issues under examination. The overall findings portray Cypriot headteachers’ preparation for headship through formal and informal leadership development opportunities and provide empirical evidence of the complex process of their socialisation in schools and the challenges they encountered during early headship. Findings from this study contribute towards theory regarding headteachers’ transition through stages of headship that could be used to develop practice and enhance understanding of how the professional and organisational socialisation experiences help shape the professional identity of headteachers. Empirical evidence from this thesis has important implications for policy makers, training providers and researchers with regards to headship preparation and induction in Cyprus and internationally. The findings also suggest several important directions for future research, most importantly in professional identity formation and leadership styles; gender issues in pathways to headship; the importance of ‘people’ as socialisation agents for new heads; and the need for longitudinal studies on transition through stages of headship within the Cypriot educational context.

The research study investigates the spiritual dimension in the personal and professional lives of primary headteachers. The term ‘spiritual’ is interpreted widely to include its religious and nonreligious forms and to leave open the possibility of a variety of readings. The two research questions that give focus to the study are: 1. What is the nature of the spiritual dimension in the personal and professional lives of primary headteachers? 2. Is there a discernible connection between such a spiritual dimension and headteachers’ work in primary schools? Data were gathered through biographically-focussed case studies of six primary phase headteachers leading faith and community schools in England. Data-gathering procedures included biographical interviews, observations and scrutiny of documentation. The research study identifies three descriptive characteristics of the spiritual dimension: 1. that it is refracted through a range of relationships, which for some headteachers may include a relationship with the divine; 2. that it is given expression through headteachers’ dispositions and attitudes, perhaps informed by a consciousness of the divine or deep sense of human interconnectedness; and 3. that these dispositions and attitudes are fluid and layered, holding within them the potential for the profundity and intensification that distinguishes the term from the moral, personal or social aspects of primary headteachers’ lives, though they are related. The spiritual dimension, in this context, is associated with personal being and becoming, rather than the exercise of professional skills and know-how. What may be seen as spiritual activities, such as prayer or deep reflection on questions of purpose and meaning in life, seem to bring not just resilience or resolve to primary headteachers, but also affirmation of their work, particularly their care for their schools’ communities. The research study’s findings add to the growing understanding of the spiritual dimension of school leadership and offer a biographical contextualisation that has had more limited attention in studies of spirituality and headship. They appear to normalise the place of the spiritual in heads’ professional work and therefore to legitimise the language of the spirit in the discourse of school leadership.

The continuing improvement in standards and the associated direct school accountability has been at the forefront of school policy since the introduction of the Education Reform Act of 1988. Its introduction brought both top down curriculum control and the opening up of primary schools in England to neo-liberal market reforms. To facilitate direct market competition and raise standards, measures of performance were introduced, in the form of annually published national assessments (SATs) and from 1992 inspection by Ofsted (Office for Standards in Education). These measures took on board the status of High Stakes Testing (HST), since their outcomes directly impacted upon the professional lives of all those working within primary schools. Prior to 1988, central government had started to address underachievement, for example, Better Schools (DfES 1985), but now, for the first time, individual schools and their leaders were to be directly responsible for the achievement, or otherwise, of their pupils through the publication of attainment data and regular inspection reports. The notion of performativity (Ball 2003) was introduced into English primary schools, where performance measures and judgements (HST) were used as a means of top-down regulation and policy enforcement. This study investigates current primary school headteachers’ perceptions of their own professional accountability. It further explores the continuing focus on standards and the constant pressures and conflicts heads currently face in terms of maximising pupil attainment outcomes. The fieldwork was carried out within thirty four state funded primary schools across the North of England. A questionnaire was used to survey headteachers’ current perceptions; this data located heads on to a conceptual framework (Figure 5.5). Heads are located into one of four positions regarding their perceptions of the Standards Driven Agenda (SDA) and HST. Heads from each of the positions were then interviewed, which formed the prime data collection tool. The research further examines the inter-relationship between socio-economic context and HST outcomes, addressing the question of the equality of the application of identical floor targets for all primary schools, regardless of circumstance. Schools falling within areas of high and low deprivation were identified, using the income deprivation affecting children index (IDACI); each area’s headteachers’ perceptions were then compared and contrasted, in order to identify any effects of context. Ranson’s (2003) typology and Ball’s (2003) conceptualisation of accountabilities were developed in order to explore the identified trend of heads resisting what they view as a ‘data dictatorship’, and seeking to reinstate a previous age of professionalism. A clear plea for a change was evident with a call for a shift away from the current focus on standards in English and maths to the adoption of a more balanced and creative curriculum, where both the academic and social needs of the children are being met. The desire to return to Grace’s (1995) notion of the cult of the ‘headmaster tradition’, with the reinstatement of higher levels of professional autonomy and trust, was evident within many of the participating heads, along with a strong sense of moral guardian and leadership. All heads are aware of the need to be accountable for the tax payers’ money used to fund their schools, accepting the need for accountability measures. However, both sets of heads acknowledge that when a school’s effectiveness is solely measured by means of HST, it fails to be a level playing field. Factors such as parental support and education, housing and income were all identified as significant contributing factors in pupil attainment, resulting in heads reporting that these factors were not taken into account when the performance of their school was judged. The study contributes to the knowledge of how serving heads balance the needs of their children, parents and staff, whilst ensuring that they continue to improve standards, as defined by successive governmental policy and thus meet the requirements of HST.

Afrikaans text / Die bestuurstaak van die hoof van 'n preprimere skoal word gekenmerk aan die eie aard en struktuur van preprimere onderwys. Die doel van hierdie studie is die identifisering en omskrywing van die aard en omvang van die besondere bestuurstaak. Die diversiteit en kompleksiteit van hierdie bestuurstaak word vergestalt in die huidige beleid oor preprimere onderwys wat meebring dat verskeie staatsdepartemente, provinsiale- en plaaslike owerhede, gemeenskaps- en privaatinstansies by die beheer en voorsiening van preprimere onderwys betrokke is. Hierbenewensmoet die doelstellings van preprimere onderwys ann die unieke behoeftes ban die jong kind voldoen. Noue samewerking met die ouers asook samewerking tussen die personeel onderling, is uiteraard noodsaaklik. Die invloed van gemeenskapstrukture en die eise van die moderne samelewing word in die bestuurstaak aangespreek. In hierdie verband word veral verwys na gesinsprobleme waarby die hoof in 'n vertrouens- en raadgewende hoedanigheid betrokke is. In die bepaling van die omvang van die bestuurstaak is die vier hooftake in onderwysbestuur, naamlik beplanning, organisering, leidinggewing en beheer op die tersaaklike bestuursareas van toepassing gemaak. Benewens algemene bestuursaangeleenthede, het die preprimere skoolhoof ook 'n besondere taak ten opsigte van die professionele uitbouing van die beroep. Ten einde te bepaal hoe die bestuurstaak in die praktyk realiseer, is 'n kwalitatiewe ondersoek na die persoonlike ervaring en interpretasie van skoolhoofde onderneem. Dataversameling aan die hand van in-diepte onderhoude het velerlei probleme, wat aanvullend tot die literatuurstudie bespreek kon word, openbaar. In die lig van die moontlike privatisering van preprimere onderwys sal aangeleenthede soos finansiele bestuur en bemarking in die kurrikulum van preprimere onderwysbestuur aangespreek moet word. Die aktualiteit van 'n effektiewe beheerstruktuur vir preprimere onderwys word beklemtoon. Op grand van die bevindings normatiewe ontwikkeling van onderwysbestuur gemaak. van die studie is aanbevelings die opleidingskursusse in vir die preprimere onderwysbestuur gemaak. / The management task of the principal of a preprimary school is characterised by the distinctive nature and structure of preprimary education. The purpose of this study is tn identify and define the nature and scope of the particular management task. Both the diversity and complexity of this management task are embodied in the current policy on preprimary education which entails the involvement of various state departments, provincial and local authorities, social and ·private organisations in the control and provision of preprimary education. In addition to this; the aims of preprimary education have to meet the unique needs of the young child. Close cooperation with the parents • as well as mutual cooperation among the staff is naturally essential. The influence of social structures and the demands of modern society are addressed by the management task. In this regard special reference is made to family problems where the principal is involved in a confidential and advisory capacity. The four primary tasks in educational management, namely planning, organisation, guidance and control, are applied to the relevant management areas to determine the scope of the management task. Apart from general managerial concerns, the preprimary school principal also has a special task with regard to the professional extension of the profession. In· order to determine how the management task materialises in practice, a qualitative investigation was undertaken into the personal· experience and interpretation of school principals. The data collected by means of in-depth interviews, revealed several problems, additional to those which emerged from the literature study, which were discussed. In the light of the possible privatisation of preprimary education, issues such as financial management and marketing will have to be addressed in the curriculum of preprimary educational management. The actuality of an effective control structure for preprimary education is stressed. Based on the findings of the study, recommendations are made for the normative development of the training courses in preprimary educational management. / Educational Leadership and Management / D. Ed. (Onderwysbestuur)

The aim of this research is to identify and scrutinise current aspects of leadership in small primary schools in order to generate a new context-appropriate model of headship. The research is an in-depth study of leading the small primary school from the perspective of headteachers. There is a dearth of literature concerning leadership that is specific to small primary schools, so this research has accordingly significantly enhanced that body of knowledge. It is also timely as the newly-appointed Government is reviewing the resourcing and management of schools in England. This study has drawn on the descriptive and interpretive aspects of a case study of all the small primary schools in one Local Authority. The resulting response sample was twenty-six headteachers. The study has identified possible changes to enhance educational policy at three levels: school, Local Authority and Central Government. The research is characteristic of the realist tradition, generating rich, qualitative data which have been gathered through the use of interviews, questionnaires, Ofsted reports and ‘naturally occurring’ material. The research identified that the leadership structure in small primary schools is of a flatter and more interlocking nature rather than having a hierarchy of leaders. The headteachers used a combination of leadership styles in order to share the leadership with other members of staff. Headteachers had a multi-faceted role which included a range of both leadership and management activities, and also retained a teaching role. These features of small school headships made them ‘first among equals’ (Ironside and Seifert, 1995) rather than elevated CEOs. A new model of Leadership in Small Primary Schools has been developed which arises from the identified needs of these headteachers with regards to the perceived deficits in training, support and expected school performance and targets. This is relevant not only to all headteachers of small primary schools but also, in particular, to policymakers and educationalists in England at a point when there is an increasing loss of headteachers to retirement and an extreme shortage of applicants for these vacant posts.

Afrikaans text / Die bestuurstaak van die hoof van 'n preprimere skoal word gekenmerk aan die eie aard en struktuur van preprimere onderwys. Die doel van hierdie studie is die identifisering en omskrywing van die aard en omvang van die besondere bestuurstaak. Die diversiteit en kompleksiteit van hierdie bestuurstaak word vergestalt in die huidige beleid oor preprimere onderwys wat meebring dat verskeie staatsdepartemente, provinsiale- en plaaslike owerhede, gemeenskaps- en privaatinstansies by die beheer en voorsiening van preprimere onderwys betrokke is. Hierbenewensmoet die doelstellings van preprimere onderwys ann die unieke behoeftes ban die jong kind voldoen. Noue samewerking met die ouers asook samewerking tussen die personeel onderling, is uiteraard noodsaaklik. Die invloed van gemeenskapstrukture en die eise van die moderne samelewing word in die bestuurstaak aangespreek. In hierdie verband word veral verwys na gesinsprobleme waarby die hoof in 'n vertrouens- en raadgewende hoedanigheid betrokke is. In die bepaling van die omvang van die bestuurstaak is die vier hooftake in onderwysbestuur, naamlik beplanning, organisering, leidinggewing en beheer op die tersaaklike bestuursareas van toepassing gemaak. Benewens algemene bestuursaangeleenthede, het die preprimere skoolhoof ook 'n besondere taak ten opsigte van die professionele uitbouing van die beroep. Ten einde te bepaal hoe die bestuurstaak in die praktyk realiseer, is 'n kwalitatiewe ondersoek na die persoonlike ervaring en interpretasie van skoolhoofde onderneem. Dataversameling aan die hand van in-diepte onderhoude het velerlei probleme, wat aanvullend tot die literatuurstudie bespreek kon word, openbaar. In die lig van die moontlike privatisering van preprimere onderwys sal aangeleenthede soos finansiele bestuur en bemarking in die kurrikulum van preprimere onderwysbestuur aangespreek moet word. Die aktualiteit van 'n effektiewe beheerstruktuur vir preprimere onderwys word beklemtoon. Op grand van die bevindings normatiewe ontwikkeling van onderwysbestuur gemaak. van die studie is aanbevelings die opleidingskursusse in vir die preprimere onderwysbestuur gemaak. / The management task of the principal of a preprimary school is characterised by the distinctive nature and structure of preprimary education. The purpose of this study is tn identify and define the nature and scope of the particular management task. Both the diversity and complexity of this management task are embodied in the current policy on preprimary education which entails the involvement of various state departments, provincial and local authorities, social and ·private organisations in the control and provision of preprimary education. In addition to this; the aims of preprimary education have to meet the unique needs of the young child. Close cooperation with the parents • as well as mutual cooperation among the staff is naturally essential. The influence of social structures and the demands of modern society are addressed by the management task. In this regard special reference is made to family problems where the principal is involved in a confidential and advisory capacity. The four primary tasks in educational management, namely planning, organisation, guidance and control, are applied to the relevant management areas to determine the scope of the management task. Apart from general managerial concerns, the preprimary school principal also has a special task with regard to the professional extension of the profession. In· order to determine how the management task materialises in practice, a qualitative investigation was undertaken into the personal· experience and interpretation of school principals. The data collected by means of in-depth interviews, revealed several problems, additional to those which emerged from the literature study, which were discussed. In the light of the possible privatisation of preprimary education, issues such as financial management and marketing will have to be addressed in the curriculum of preprimary educational management. The actuality of an effective control structure for preprimary education is stressed. Based on the findings of the study, recommendations are made for the normative development of the training courses in preprimary educational management. / Educational Leadership and Management / D. Ed. (Onderwysbestuur)

This thesis makes a conceptual contribution to the field of school leadership studies with a descriptive and analytical representation of the current practice and development of leaders in English Primary schools. The aim of the research is to investigate the development of nineteen school leaders, nesting their own vivid descriptions of their leadership development within a professional researcher enquiry for new knowledge and understanding. An extensive literature review locates the argument in a historical and cultural context, directed by the first research question: ‘What are the knowledge claims about the changes to school leadership and management in the policy and research literature in the last twenty-five years?’ The second research question asks: ‘What are the knowledge claims of the practice of school leadership in Primary schools as found in the official and research literature?’ Findings from the literature provide knowledge of the official expectations and advice given to school leaders in the implementation of their work. The literature also provides knowledge of leadership practice associated with issues of power, micro-politics, social and moral frames used by leaders as social agents in interpreting their leadership. Research questions three and four direct the field-research asking: ‘How are leadership roles practised and developed in Primary schools?’ and ‘What are the empirical findings that build knowledge of Primary school leadership practice and development?’ A case-study methodology structured the field-work, with qualitative research conducted in four Primary schools in North-West England during one academic year, 2008-2009. The empirical data for the case was primarily collected from nineteen members of four Senior Leadership Teams (SLT) through semi-structured interviews and observations of SLT meetings. The analysis of the full research findings is presented in an original construction of leadership, conceptualised as the PIVOT. This framework presents the key findings as integrated factors in a holistic frame around a central point, the PIVOT of leadership, which is explained as the Purpose, the Identity, the Values, the Options and the Trust, presenting wider issues for educational leadership decisions. The final research question five asks: ‘What recommendations can be made for policy and practice regarding school leadership development in Primary schools?’ Findings from the case-study make a contribution to knowledge about current school leadership practice and development, explained as a holistic, integrated approach underpinned by a wider, educative rationale, identified in the PIVOT framework. This raises issues for policy-makers and school practitioners in the development of Primary school leaders as educational leaders and provides a resource for further research enquiry by academic researchers with an interest in developing Primary school leaders.