This thesis examines whether speech rhythm sensitivity is related to children's reading development, phonological awareness, and non-speech rhythm sensitivity, whether children at risk of reading difficulties have a specific speech rhythm sensitivity deficit, and whether speech rhythm sensitivity is predictive of children's reading development over time. Study One investigated the relatedness of speech rhythm, non-speech rhythm, reading ability and phonological awareness.

readers use the information from a text and their prior knowledge in answering comprehension questions? In other words, where do children's answers to comprehension questions come from, and how is it possible to discover whether children draw inferences from information in a text, as opposed to relying on their prior knowledge and experiences outside of it? Such questions were motivated by previous research (e.g., Nicholson and Imlach, 1981; Lipson, 1982, 1983) that shows that children may produce incorrect responses in comprehension tasks because they trust their own prior knowledge and experiences more than what the text states. In order to explore these issues, a series of four studies was conducted in which children between 7 and 8 years-old were asked to read narrative and informative texts and answer different types of comprehension question about these texts. After each response, they were asked to explain how they derived their responses by answering the following question: "how do you know this answer?" The children's answers and justifications were analysed both quantitatively and qualitatively. The analysis of the data showed that the text proved to be the main source of information for the young readers, i.e. most of their comprehension responses were derived from text data. However, nearly all of the children responded to a few questions exclusively on the basis of their prior knowledge, ignoring information in the text. Overall, the problem of overuse of prior knowledge was greater after reading texts that contained ideas that conflicted with the children's general expectations or prior topic knowledge than after reading conventional texts where this conflict was not apparent. In addition, a great variety of problems in using text information were also identified, particularly in response to gap-filling questions (the ones that require searching for cues in the text and integrating these cues with background knowledge). Finally, in all the studies, there was a positive correlation between the quality of the children's justifications of their responses and their comprehension skills. A fifth study, where the children judged the quality of other children's explanations for their responses, revealed that explanations that were correctly based on information from the text and explanations that were only based on the reader's prior knowledge were perceived as equally good. This finding indicated that young readers are not fully aware of the essential relationship between text information, comprehension questions and the reader's prior knowledge. The final study demonstrated that, although young readers seem to be sensitive to the existence of different types of comprehension question, they do not have a great deal of knowledge of these differences. The results also showed that this knowledge has a positive correlation with their performance in question-answering tasks. The procedure of asking children to justify their answers was shown to be a good way of specifying more precisely some of their problems in text comprehension. It also seemed to encourage them to look back at the text and review their responses and, as such it could be considered a useful tool to improve children's reading comprehension

Different narrative skills have been linked to reading comprehension (Cain, 2003; Oakhill, Cain, & Bryant, 2003) and they develop before children begin reading instruction (Paris & Paris, 2003). However, previous research has not distinguished between narrative comprehension and production considering different structural levels. The current thesis studied narrative structural levels, and also determined the skills and factors that foster narrative growth including different aspects of narrative. The main results showed that the ability to construct a coherent plot of a story precedes the construction of a cohesive narrative, suggesting that once the ability to integrate the events globally is acquired, children can devote cognitive resources to link events locally. In addition, it was found that the home literacy environment influence narrative skills over and above lower-level language skills. These findings suggest that narrative requires knowledge that goes beyond the word and sentence level, and also that interactive parental activities developed at home impact children's ability to produce stories. Further, it was found that the construction of coherent narratives predicts reading comprehension over and above control measures and earlier narrative skill. In addition the ability to construct coherent narratives was fostered by the use of questions, and children with better working memory skills get greater benefits from the scaffolds. Taken together, those findings suggest that narrative skills consist on a good predictor of later comprehension skills, and can be promoted even before children start formal reading instruction. Finally, the distinction between comprehension and production, and also within production structural levels, reveals the relevance of addressing different narrative elements, to look at their relation with other language skills more accurately.

Abstract Successful reading is frequently described as the result of two necessary but inde- pendent processes: text decodmg and ImgUIstlc comprehensIOn. SImIlarly, readmg comprehension disorders are defined across these two dimensions: those that relate to the failure to decode text adequately and those that relate to the failure to under- stand text adequately. The research presented in this thesis explores the possibility that decoding and comprehension abilities, though independent in isolated contexts, influence each other, when processed simultaneously, more than would otherwise be expected. There are two main aims in this thesis: to examine the plausibility of the idea of a coherent "specific comprehension deficit" and to assess the degree to which theories of reading hold up to empirical analysis. Studies of the cognitive components of reading were carried out with groups of typically developing children. Analysis of data collected in these studies is presen- ted and support this general hypothesis. Basic correlational analysis indicates that decoding and comprehension processes are more highly interrelated when measured simultaneously than when measured in isolation from the other. Two potential mech- anisms for this interaction are presented. First, it is shown that the ability to pay attention to two simultaneous tasks is an important predictor of reading compre- hension for children who struggle, relative to their peers, to decode text. Second, working memory is shown to be a shared resource between these two processes, based on data collected from young adults. Data collected from typically developing chil- dren suggests that an increase in effort in decoding text can lead to reduction in working memory, and that this can also result in a larger number of comprehension errors. Executive function is also examined, but data analyses do not indicate any special interaction between executive control required for decoding and comprehen- sion tasks. These results are discussed in relation to theoretical definitions of reading pro- cesses and practical classifications of reading disorders. We conclude that there is no single typical model of the reading process, concluding the first main aim of the thesis. Evidence of interactions between decoding and comprehension indicates the need for increased complexity and consideration when modelling reading processes. Additionally, with regards to the second aim, reading difficulties should be considered in relation to specific deficits in the numerous sub-components of the reading process, 7 I ~ •• ----------------------------------------- including their possible interaction, rather than across the two simplified dimensions. The results from the studies discussed in this thesis identify sub-group effects within "typical reading" profiles, provide evidence for a more complex interaction between decoding and comprehension processes, and are used to initiate a critique on the use of general terminology and oversimplified models in reading comprehension research.

Government statistics suggest that around one-third of children and young people do not make the expected progress in reading comprehension and text production during secondary school (Department for Education, 2015a; 2015b). Inference generation abilities are at the core of skilled models of comprehension (e.g. Kintsch, 1988; Zwaan, 2003). However, previous research exploring the development of inference generation abilities typically compares a child group (9years or less) with an adult group (18years or over). To assess literal, coherence inference and elaborative inference processing in real-world and counterfactual-world conditions in a wide age-range a new measure was created: the Image Selection Task (IST). The IST embeds a self-paced reading methodology and forced-choice picture-selection task into short stories to explore changes in inference generation skill (number of errors) and time-course (speed). The IST was found to be a valid measure of inference generation abilities and, due to reducing demands on translation and expressive language processes, potentially a purer measure than existing tasks which utilise verbal response methods. The IST was used to explore age-related changes in inference generation abilities in Year 5, Year 7, Year 9 and adults using a cross-sectional design. Findings suggest that inference generation skill plays a role in both reading comprehension and text production during adolescence, with skill increasing until Year 7. Error patterns suggest that coherence inferences were no more difficult than elaborative inferences for Years 5, 7 and adults. Year 9, however, found coherence inference generation more difficult than elaborative inference generation. Inference generation speed was found to improve until Year 9 for both real-world and counterfactual-world information, with time-course patterns comparable across all age groups, such that, in real-world and counterfactual-world conditions, coherence inferences were generated online and elaborative inferences offline. Real-world coherence inference generation skill was found to be underpinned by knowledge during adolescence. Both knowledge and inhibitory control appear to play a role in real-world elaborative inference generation skill during adolescence. Counterfactual-world inferences were both found to be underpinned by belief biases and inhibitory control. However, the direction of effect of inhibitory control reversed (from positive to negative) in Year 9. Further research is needed to explore whether this effect is specific to the current sample or more generalisable. Based on the findings, educational recommendations are provided, including suggestions for assessment and activities at specific points in the reading process. The recommended activities focus on promoting those skills underpinning inference generation.

No description available.

Comprehension monitoring is defined as the process by which reader’s evaluate and regulate their understanding of text (e.g., Baker, 1985). Comprehension monitoring is an important component skill of reading comprehension (e.g., Cain, Oakhill & Bryant, 2004). Despite the importance of comprehension monitoring in reading comprehension, relatively little research has been undertaken to explore the development of comprehension monitoring or the task and reader characteristics critical to the development of this skill. To address this gap in the literature, this thesis explores the development of comprehension monitoring in children aged 7 to 10 years. A series of experiments are presented which explore monitoring of nonwords, general knowledge violations and internal inconsistencies using off-line and real-time measures. Experiments also explore the relationship between monitoring and working memory capacity. Findings reveal developmental differences in comprehension monitoring. Older children are better at correctly judging the sense of information and more likely to adjust their reading behaviour in relation to error information. It seems that both age groups undertake similar monitoring behaviours, albeit with different levels of success. A range of task and reader characteristics influence monitoring skill. Findings demonstrate that task instructions influence reading behaviour. Children undertake a more purposeful and careful reading of the text when alerted that texts may contain errors. Findings also demonstrate differences in children’s proficiency in adopting standards of evaluation. Children encounter most difficulties in adopting the internal consistency standard, perhaps because this standard requires children to integrate and compare the comprehensibility of information at the text-level. In addition, within error manipulations demonstrate that children use the explicitness of error information as a criterion for monitoring comprehension. Further, findings reveal that the relationship between comprehension monitoring and working memory capacity is relatively weak. Interestingly, these findings question the importance of working memory capacity as a source of monitoring difficulties. In the context of the situation model, these findings suggest that monitoring difficulties may arise from failures in constructing a richly elaborated situation model, rather than failures in updating the situation model.

As schools in England introduced the phonics checklist during 2012, the question of the best approach to teach children to read is again a matter for educational debate. Jolliffe (2004) claimed that the most effective way to teach children to read has been contested in schools for many years. Two different views of how to teach reading through either Whole Language theory or phonics have become contested strategies in this debate. Goodman (1998) described these competing pedagogies as ‘The reading wars’.

Despite growing evidence informing educators for effective reading comprehension (RC) teaching, it is unclear how extensively this evidence base is implemented in practice and teacher self-efficacy can have a role to play. Recent estimates suggest about 15% of U.K. students are below expected levels of attainment by the end of KS2. While Educational Psychologists can support the implementation of evidence base in classrooms to raise literacy standards, there is a lack of U.K. studies that examined the extent that the evidence base in RC instruction is implemented in practice and how confident teachers feel about implementing them. The aims of this study were three-fold. Firstly, to explore the extent that U.K. teachers used evidence-based practices when teaching RC. Secondly, to investigate teacher confidence levels in using them. Lastly, to examine the relationship between teacher self-efficacy and the extent they used evidence-based RC instructional practices. A mixed methods non-experimental fixed research design was used. The questionnaire sent out to 379 KS2 teachers resulted in 29 responses (i.e. 7.7% response rate). A subset of nine teachers participated in the systematic classroom observation of their RC lessons and a further subset of three teachers participated as case studies in follow up interviews. The results indicated that some evidence-based practices were incorporated in KS2 RC instruction and teachers generally felt confident about their implementation. However, the range of evidence-based practices used was limited and it was not always practices with the strongest evidence base. A positive relationship between teacher self-efficacy and the extent that teachers incorporated evidence-based RC instructional practices was observed, although this relationship appeared complex. The findings from this exploratory study contributed towards the existing gap in research on implementation of evidence based teaching practice for RC instruction in U.K. schools. Implications for professional practice and recommendations for further research are considered.

Reciprocal Teaching (RT) is a metacognitive training programme that was found to improve reading comprehension during the 1980s (Palincsar and Brown, 1984). Four strategies: predicting, clarifying, questioning and summarising are taught, then students gradually assume control of teaching within a heterogeneous small group until they are actively involved in constructing meaning from text. A review of the literature revealed that there is “very little” research on RT in the UK (Brooks, 2013), little research worldwide in whole class settings, and little evidence that RT is effective for children under twelve (Cain, 2010). Three intervention studies presented here investigated the effectiveness of RT in whole class UK settings with young readers, and the effect of incorporating visualisation as an additional strategy (RTV). Study 1 was delivered by the researcher with three Year 5 classes (N=50). Results revealed a significant improvement in comprehension scores for the RT groups over a normal instruction group after ten hours of training, but no difference between the RT and RTV groups. A second mixed-methods study (Study 2) involved Year 3 children (N=12) with ten weeks of RT instruction, followed by ten weeks of RTV, delivered by the class teacher. Think-aloud protocols and interviews revealed an increase in strategy use. There was a significant improvement in reading comprehension scores immediately after the intervention, and a one year follow-up assessment showed improvement close to significance (p=.09). The third study (Study 3) in a different school with Year 3 children (N=28), replicated the results from Study 2, but with a significant increase in reading comprehension scores at the one-year follow-up assessment. Overall, the results revealed that RT was effective in three different whole class settings, with children as young as seven. Qualitative measures indicated that the instruction worked by increasing strategy use.