Recent advances in communications technologies enable access to the Internet from anywhere in the world. This has generated interest, demand and research into methods of using and enhancing this technology to deliver Continuing Professional Development (CPD). This research examines issues relevant to the electronic delivery of professional updating to marine engineers in a pro-active manner locating the learner at the centre of the CPD process. Educational theories including experiential learning, andragogy, constructivism and Laurillard's conversational framework are investigated and the importance of learning styles in the design of material based on user needs is examined. A needs analysis of 1117 marine engineers revealed which subjects were in most demand for CPD and showed that individuals have different learning requirements. An accompanying survey of learning styles showed the respondents to be strong reflector/theorists but indicated that learning designed to be effective for all styles would be most appropriate. The conclusions drawn from the review of CPD, Internet and educational theory were combined with the results of the survey to derive the principles necessary for the creation of an innovative approach to online learning. The outcome was the synthesis, development and construction of the Marine Engineers' Managed Environment for Learning (MEMEL); an Internet based learning environment for the delivery of CPD to marine engineers. MEMEL has the ability to deliver online learning to a variety of learners on a range of subjects. As the evaluation of managed environments for learning is a comparatively new undertaking it was necessary to develop a novel framework specifically for the purpose. The evaluation indicated that MEMEL is a valid vehicle for the delivery of online learning. Two areas that have been specifically identified for further research are the use of electronic media to facilitate the process of reflection and enhancing access for users with a disability.

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In 2013 the Ghana National Functional Literacy Programme (GNFLP) changed its approach to adult literacy. Instead of local language literacy learning facilitated by volunteers it now deploys Programme Assistants who previously administered the system as Adult Literacy Officers (ALOs) to facilitate literacy learning in English. This study explores what is happening in the GNFLP classrooms especially in view of the recent policy changes and other contextual challenges. The aim is to contribute to knowledge on the facilitation of adult literacy specifically in Ghana and how it is impacted by programme management issues and other contextual factors. A qualitative case study design was employed to explore the key question of how adult literacy facilitation in English is being accomplished in the Ghana NFLP and four sub-questions as follows: 1. How is literacy facilitation understood by the ALOs? 2. How does the understanding of literacy facilitation held by ALOs translate into the facilitation of the new policy of NFLP in English? 3. What difficulties do ALOs face in enacting facilitation? 4. What are the perspectives of the ALOs on their new role in the NFLP? Data collection comprised observation of six adult literacy classes, selected purposefully from a district in a southern region of Ghana. These were followed by semi-structured interviews with the six ALOs whose classes were observed. After initial analysis of the data, four telephone follow-up interviews were conducted to fill up gaps in data. In addition, documents including research reports on literacy, facilitation and second language teaching, as well as instructional materials were analyzed. All data sets were analyzed using thematic analysis framework because it is a flexible and useful research tool that gave me a means of providing a rich and detailed account of the data on facilitation. Secondly, it is not ‘wed to any pre-existing theoretical frameworks' so it made it easy for me to interrogate the data in this study adopting a constructionist epistemological position (Braun and Clarke, 2006: 9). The study was guided by Knowles' notion of andragogy which provides guidelines on how adults learn and Rogers' Facilitation Theory. The study revealed that although ALOs are expected to use andragogic methods in facilitating English literacy learning to adults, especially those with limited and no literacy, programme related factors make this difficult. Inadequate class inputs, ALO-related issues such as facilitator's own English linguistic competency and some level of difficulty with communicating with the learners whilst facilitating their English literacy limit learner participation and encourage a transmission approach. Although comprehension was facilitated through translation for participants, their English language production was very limited. However, participants benefitted more in public speaking even in their own language and a sense of solidarity from participation. The study concludes that second language literacy facilitation for adult learners requires linguistic as well as andragogic competence. Adequate resourcing and management of contextual issues are also factors that impact on facilitation of English literacy learning by adults. Better standards for deploying, building the capacities of the ALOs and managing the programme are therefore recommended if proficiency in literacy levels is to be attained by participants. The study sheds light on what pertains in an adult functional English literacy class in the GNFLP and has offered implications for policy and practice.

1. Forschungsproblem Heterogene wie normative Orientierungsmuster im Kontext individueller Lebensverläufe bilden den Ausgangspunkt der qualitativ-empirischen Studie zur Lebensgestaltung von Frauen mit ländlich-katholischer Herkunft. Während innerhalb der pädagogischen Biographieforschung gegenwärtige Lebensführung als biographische Eigenleistung gefasst wird (vgl. Alheit, 1990), werden von der soziologischen Lebenslaufforschung vor allem Verflechtungsprozesse hervorgehoben, die den Lebenslauf offen oder verdeckt strukturieren (vgl. Born/Krüger/Lorenz-Meyer, 1996). Gegenwärtige Lebensführung ist im Kontext vervielfältigter und zugleich normativer Orientierungsmuster zu sehen. Angesichts ländlich-religiöser Beharrungsstrukturen (vgl. Becker, 1997a/b) wie geschlechts- und generationsspezifischen Strukturierungsprozesse (vgl. Dausien, 1996; 1997) tritt das Verflechtungspotential über Struktur und Norm im Lebensverlauf zweier Frauengenerationen mit ländlicher und katholischen Herkunft verstärkt zu Tage, weshalb die hier untersuchte biographische Eigenleistung in der Auseinandersetzung mit ländlicher, intergenerativer und kirchlich-religiöser Traditionenverhaftung untersucht wird. 2. Fragestellung In der Studie wird der Forschungsfrage nachgegangen, wie Frauen zweier Generationen mit ländlich-katholischer Herkunft ihre Lebensgestaltung im Kontext heterogener und normativer Orientierungsmuster bewerkstelligen. Dabei wird sowohl die Rolle geschlechtsspezifischer, ländlicher, intergenerativer sowie religiös konnotierter Orientierungsmuster im Kontext gegenwärtiger Lebensführung erforscht als auch nach biographischen Ressourcen gefragt. 3. Methode Die Studie verwendet ein qualitativ-empirisches Verfahren, das auf leitfadengesteuerten Interviews beruht und in der Auswertung dem methodischen Vorgehen der `Revised Grounded Theory´ (Strauss/Corbin, 1996) folgt. Die Befragung umfasst vierzehn Frauen mit ländlicher und katholischer Herkunft zweier Generationen. Dabei wurden sieben Mutter-Tochter-Paare jeweils getrennt voneinander interviewt. Die qualitative Erhebung individueller Lebensführung im Kontext heterogener wie normativer Orientierungsmuster wurde über Erzählungen biographischer Diskrepanzerfahrungen eingeholt. Die Konzeptualisierung biographischer Eigenleistungen im Kontext sozialer Strukturierung erfolgte mit Hilfe handlungstheoretischer und soziologischer Konzepte, die im Auswertungsprozess zur Typenbildung biographischer Organisation geführt wurden. Die Rolle ländlich- oder religiöskonnotierter sowie geschlechtsspezifischer oder intergenerativer Orientierungsmuster wurde über die Rekonstruktion verflechtender Prozesse im Umgang mit Diskrepanzerfahrungen ermittelt. 4. Empirische Erkenntnisse Biographische Eigenleistungen der Befragungsgruppe lassen sich in vier verschiedene Formen differenzieren (selbstbestimmt, rational, vereinfacht, zufallshaft), wobei die subjektive Einstellung zur Handlungs- oder Lösungsorientierung eine maßgebliche Rolle bei der Ausgestaltung spielt. Die ermittelten Typen unterscheiden sich über das zugrunde liegende Selbstkonzept, die subjektiv wahrgenommene Handlungskapazität sowie über verschiedene zum Tragen kommende biographische Gestaltungsmodi. Die Rekonstruktion relevanter Orientierungsmuster ergab sowohl in Form von subjektiven Wertmaßstäben als auch über die Relevanz sozialer Beziehungen zum Teil eine strukturwirksame Rolle in den untersuchten Lebensverläufen. Ebenso nehmen vor allem geschlechtsspezifisch konnotierte Orientierungsmuster in biographischen Entscheidungssituationen mitunter eine diskrepanzbehaftete Rolle ein. 5. Einordnung in den Forschungskontext Angesichts der ermittelten Selbstkonzepte, die biographischen Eigenleistungen zugrunde liegen, liefert die Studie empirisches Anschauungsmaterial vielfältiger und variabler Selbstbilder, von denen in der gegenwärtigen Selbstkonzeptforschung ausgegangen wird. Darüber hinaus konnten subjektive Einstellungen zur Handlungs- und Lösungsorientierung als wesentliche Parameter biographischer Eigenleistungen für die Biographieforschung identifiziert werden. Ebenso leisten die Ergebnisse einen Beitrag zur Diskussion biographischer Ressourcen gegenwärtiger Lebensführung. Im Umgang mit biographischen Diskrepanzerfahrungen wurden ein authentisches Selbstkonzept, die Arbeit am Selbst sowie die Fähigkeit zur diskursiven Reflexivität als biographische Ressourcen ermittelt. Im Kontext der Geschlechterforschung weisen die vier Typen biographischer Organisation auf reproduzierende wie modifizierende Prozesse gesellschaftlicher Verhältnisse über den Lebensverlauf hin. / 1. Research-problem Heterogeneous and normative orientational patterns within the context of individual lifestyles form the point of departure for this qualitative empirical study examining how women from rural, catholic backgrounds live their lives. While educational biographical studies consider contemporary lifestyles to be the result of an individual’s personal biographical contribution (cf. Alheit, 1990), sociological biographical studies instead consider an individual’s life to be subject to overt or covert structuring processes (cf. Born/Krüger/Lorenz-Meyer, 1996). Contemporary lifestyles are thus to be seen against the backdrop of both heterogeneous and normative orientational patterns. Due to rural and religious structures perpetuating the status quo (cf. Becker, 1997a/b) as well as gender- and generation-specific processes structuring a person’s life (cf. Dausien, 1996; 1997), structuring processes play an increasingly dominant role in the lives of two different generations of women from rural catholic backgrounds, manifesting themselves in structural and normative patterns in particular. Thus this study examines the individual’s personal biographical contribution whilst also considering the extent to which these women are bound by rural, intergenerational and religious traditions. 2. Research-questions The study looks at two generations of women from rural catholic backgrounds and how they conduct their lives within the context of heterogeneous and normative orientational patterns. It examines the role of gender-specific, rural, intergenerational and religious orientational patterns in contemporary lifestyles as well as biographical resources. 3. Method The study takes a qualitative empirical approach rooted in guideline-based interviews and draws in its analysis on the methodical approach of revised grounded theory (Strauss/Corbin, 1996). Fourteen women from rural catholic backgrounds from two different generations, i.e. seven mother-daughter pairs, participated in the study, with each interviewed separately. Accounts of biographical experiences of discrepancy served as a basis for the qualitative survey of individual lifestyles within the context of heterogeneous and normative orientational patterns. Action-theoretical and sociological concepts were used to conceptualize personal biographical contributions within the context of social structuring, which lead to different types of biographical organization in the analysis process. Reconstruction of structuring processes regarding the way the interviewees deal with experiences of discrepancy enabled determination of the role of rural or religious as well as gender-specific or intergenerational orientational patterns. 4. Empirical Findings The interviewees' personal biographical contributions can be divided into four different categories (self-determined, rational, simple, and coincidental) depending largely on the extent to which the individual assumes an action- or solution-oriented attitude. Furthermore, the categories of personal biographical contribution differ in their underlying self-concept, the individually perceived capacity to take action, and the different biographical modes to live one's life. Reconstruction of relevant orientational patterns showed that both individual values and social relations may play a structural role in the lives of the women who participated in the study. Moreover, primarily gender-specific orientational patterns may be the source of experiences of discrepancy in situations in life where a decision must to be taken. 5. Broader Research Context Given the self-concepts which could be determined in the course of this study and on which personal biographical contributions rely, the study provides empirical material for diverse and variable perceptions of the self which are well-established in contemporary self-concept research. Moreover, the study highlights that action- and solution-oriented attitudes are crucial to personal biographical contributions within the field of biographical studies. The research findings additionally contribute to the discussion on biographical resources in contemporary lifestyles. An authentic self-concept, efforts to develop the self, and the ability for discursive reflexivity were determined as biographical resources for individuals' lives within the context of heterogeneous and normative orientational patterns. Within gender studies, the four types of biographical organization suggest that existing social conditions in life are both subject to reproducing and modifying processes.

This work seeks to describe the development of the oral component of the Associated Examining Board's Test in English for Educational Purposes, a test devised to assess the language proficiency of overseas students intending to pursue a course of academic study in the UK. In introducing the allied twin themes of the discussion, that of the sociolinguistic consequences of academic study abroad and that of the criteria of assessment in oral proficiency assessment.

The subject of this study is the trainee-committee, a group of mentally handicapped adults attending an Adult Training Centre who meet regularly to discuss aspects of centre life. The frequency of representative groups of trainees was established by a survey of all ATCs in England and Wales. An 83% response rate revealed that over one fifth of centres had one of the following types of committee: trainee only (no staff taking part); staff majority (one or two trainees sitting in on a staff meeting); and trainee majority (a group of trainees with one or two members of staff in attendance). The third, 'trainee majority', category was by far the most common. The growth in committees is a recent development with an acceleration in the two years prior to the survey. A follow-up study, one year later, found this trend to be continuing. Further detail of committees was obtained in the second stage of the research in which 12 committees were examined. At each centre, the staff member most involved with the committee completed a questionnaire concerning the committee performance and his/her attitudes towards it. Trainee committee members and non-members were also interviewed and an illustrated, five point scale was used as the response medium. Trainee and staff responses to the same items were compared. This stage of the research revealed that the approach adopted towards the committees examined lacked structure and objectiveness. The staff involved did not appear to have considered the individual skills required for committee membership or the factors which impinge on committee activity. Training for membership, though recognised as valuable, rarely took place. Staff, trainee committee members and non-members, generally viewed the committee as a valuable component of centre life. Recommendations for committee practice were drawn up following this stage of research. In the third stage of the study, the effects of committee initiation and activity were investigated. An experimental committee was established according to the recommendations previously formulated and pre-training took place prior to committee initiation (in 12 hourly sessions). The nine committee members were assessed on the Self-Advocacy Assessment Battery (SAAB) (12 individual and 2 group related measures) prior to training and six months later. The committee met weekly in this period and its activities were directed, and monitored, by the experimenter. Assessments were also made, at the same intervals, of a committee which had existed for 3 years, and to which the members of the experimental committee had been matched on the Scale for Assessing Coping Skills. The activities of this committee were partially monitored. A matched control group with no previous committee experience, or experience throughout the study, was similarly assessed. A case study of each committee, and analysis of the verbal recordings of meetings, are given in the thesis. Little difference was found between the three groups at the first assessment. Significant improvements were noted for the experimental committee at the second assessment on the measures of knowledge of committee terminology, reporting information and assessing opinion. Locus of control was found to have become significantly more internal at the second assessment. Improvements were also indicated for the experimental committee in the measure of recognition of vocal expression, decision making and in the group problem solving and decision making measures. Little change was found in selfconcept, recognition of facial expression, the Rosenzweig Picture-Frustration study, the staff and parental measures of frequency of independent action and in staff ratings of committee ability. The performance of the existing committee and control group varied little between assessments. The recommendations for committee practice were amended following this final stage of the research and the Self-Advocacy Manual was in draft form at the end of the study. The results are discussed in terms of the value of trainee-committees as a means of self-advocacy for mentally handicapped people. * Whilst the majority of individuals attending Adult Training Centres fall within the category of severe mental handicap, it should be pointed out that the majority of individuals taking part in this study would be in the upper-severe to mild mental handicap range of ability.