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In both England and Japan, 'lifelong learning' has been positioned as central to educational reform. However, their lifelong learning policies are different: skills development which leading to economic growth is emphasised in England, whereas community building aiming at social reconstruction is prioritised in Japan. This study asks why the policies are different and how these differences have developed. English and Japanese lifelong learning policies have developed within both domestic and global contexts. Domestically, contrasting historical problems and moments of major change and political and social processes have resulted in different lifelong learning policies in the two countries. Globally, in the 1990s, the idea of lifelong learning has become a discursive norm, and numerous benefits for lifelong learning are claimed. Similar debates can be identified in both England and Japan, but it is the legitimacy and adaptability of lifelong learning which permit different interpretations of the idea. This study is structured as follows. Chapter One frames the study, outlining the scope, the research questions, the main argument and the structure of the thesis. Chapter Two provides an historical account of the international development of lifelong learning policy and identifies the current major characteristics of the international discourse on lifelong learning. Chapters Three and Four analyse respectively the formulation of the English and the Japanese lifelong learning policies. As the policies moved into practice, they were reshaped: these processes are analysed in Chapters Five and Six. Chapter Seven revisits the international discourse on lifelong learning and examines its relationship with local lifelong learning policies. Chapter Eight reflects on the study.

Post-16 educational discourse reflects government policy that, as a conceptual framework, it is shaping a new model of learning, skills initiatives and workforce development. This qualitative research examines the debate concerning the Skills Strategy (DfES 2003) and impact of 21st century skills on economic and global competitiveness. It draws upon data grounded in a theoretical framework, as well as in the professional experiences of thirteen post-16 stakeholders representing a cross-section of organisations. The research question explores whether the Skills Strategy will be judged a success or failure. Discourse interpretation identifies four principal threads weaving through the thesis. The first considers the Skills Strategy in shaping workforce development and lifelong learning. The second stems from issues of what constitutes skilling. The third originates from the politicisation of learning. The fourth flows from issues of accessibility and widening participation. Research findings suggest that there is an urgent need to contextualise post-16 policy and define a pedagogy appropriate for shaping skills needs a both sub-regional and national level. The researcher is a manager in the post-16 sector responsible for delivery of a flexible and diverse curriculum, to primarily 19-plus part-time learners, across a range and level of disciplines. Based on the experience of fifteen years teaching and management in further Education, this study offers an original and significant contribution to knowledge in an academic field identified by government as critical in giving relevance to PCET. It addresses a specific gap in educational thinking and adds another voice to the learning and skills debate. This provides a powerful tool for reassessing existing professional practice across different contexts. Limitations centre on the practical considerations of undertaking research related to time-bound issues of skills policy implementation. Implications for professional practice emanate from how this research, as a model of critical reflection and part of the process of professional practice, makes its own positive contribution to knowledge and further development of the skills agenda.

This study explores a common perception that the number of short term adult residential colleges in England and Wales is in decline due to a lack of clarity of purpose, little or no investment and an apparent lack of strategic direction on the part of those who own these establishments. This is despite clear evidence that studying in a residential setting enhances the quality of the learning experience. In very practical terms this research will explore what kind of business model might be successful in such circumstances, and provide an opportunity to secure the future of these unique establishments. The thesis examines the value of such institutions and goes on to investigate the possible reasons why, over the past 60 years the number of short term residential colleges has declined. By examining the financial and enrolment results of five colleges over a two year period, as well as interviewing principals and learners, proposes a model to secure a future for residential education in this country. The topic for this thesis was identified by the author as a result of 20 years experience as Principal of a short term residential college and latterly Head of a county residential education service. The colleges investigated were situated in England and differed in size, ownership and managerial structure. They have over the past 50 – 60 years promoted and sold adult residential courses of varying lengths to the adult population. The research approach adopted in this thesis includes an examination of available literature to determine the original purpose and subsequent development of short term residential colleges. Two major research strategies were used: firstly quantitative analysis of data collected over a two year period representing five different approaches to ownership and management and secondly qualitative analysis of data collected from interviews with principals and active learners to establish the present and future position direction of the five case studies. The data was triangulated to demonstrate concurrent validity, reliability and confidence in the findings. The findings of this research provide evidence that there has, over the past 60 years, been a decline in the number of short term residential colleges and that the decline is mainly confined to those colleges owned and managed by county councils. Of the five case studies, three owned by county (or city) councils face an uncertain future due to lack of direction, commitment and investment as well as financial constraints placed upon them. The findings established that active learners clearly supported the quality of residential learning experience. This thesis recommends that to survive colleges must have a clear unambiguous purpose fit for the 21st century. Colleges that are not charitable organisations would benefit from adopting the organisation model in having clear objects encapsulating a unique selling point whether it is defined as a segment of the adult learning sector or a specialist subject area. The main conclusions drawn from this study are that the adult residential college has a place in the adult learning landscape. Colleges must be financially independent and be nationally recognised for outstanding quality in the adult residential courses they offer.