The economic policy named as privatisation has been one of the most popular among governments around the world since the early 1980's. Initially defined as the sale of state- owned enterprises. This thesis tries to be a contribution to privatisation, able to explain the fundamental causes of the inefficiency gap and the reasons why the present trend towards privatisation is being observed across the world. After a thorough revision of the existent literature, two theoretical models analyse different aspects of the problem. A common basic framework is used in both of them: the usual assumption of benevolent welfare- maximising governments is replaced by a more realistic approach to governments as non- benevolent vote-seeking agents. In addition, two empirical contributions are presented to examine how predictions from the political approach to privatisation are related to actual observations from public firms. The first theoretical model (chapter 2) studies how governments' ideologies can influence privatisation decisions. A voting game between two political parties is studied, showing that although ideology plays a role, strategic considerations are of greater importance to governments when taking decisions about public firms and privatisation. Results derived from this model explain the actual observation about privatisation being performed by governments of very different type of ideologies. The role that tight public budget constraints may have played on privatisations is also examined. The second model (chapter 3) analyses the problem of overstaffing of firms and its relationship to ownership structure. A non-benevolent government is assumed to take decisions under uncertainty over the size of a project or the level of a service to be publicly provided. Three types of firm can produce the good: a publicly-owned firm or a contracted-out private firm, regulated either with a complete or an incomplete contract. Outcomes are compared, showing that the public firm tends to be inefficiently larger in more states of nature. However, private firms may provide lower than optimal levels of service in more cases, the problem being more severe under incomplete contracting. These results help us to understand three key points: one fundamental cause of the inefficiency gap, how privatisation may solve the problem, and some of the potential drawbacks of the policy. The first empirical contribution (chapter 4) is a case of study for the Spanish urban bus industry. Using data from a sample of firms, a translog cost function is estimated to evaluate the relative inefficiency of public firms. Results indicate that public firms are highly overstaffed and pay high wages to their workers, even if labour productivity is low. Since private firms are also regulated by city councils and subject to the same laws, this case is presented as an example of the preference of politicians for direct control of firms instead of pursuing personal agendas through regulated firms. The second empirical contribution (chapter 5) estimates political effects over employment and wages using data from US local governments. A bargaining model between a non-benevolent government and a union is proposed and solved. First-order conditions and reduced-form equations of this model are then estimated using data from several services provided directly by US local authorities. Results indicate that looser controls over politicians lead to a larger number of workers employed and to higher wages. Unions' effects on wages are significant, while not so relevant impact on employment is observed. This empirical evidence supports the idea that political factors are highly relevant in explaining public firms' inefficiency, specially when they are combined with trade unions' effects.

The comparison of whole life performance in transportation systems is a complex undertaking and can lead to confusing, counter intuitive results. Much of this arises due to the complex interactions of different elements in the energy usage system. For example, the energy used in the transportation system includes both energy in vehicle usage and energy in transporting fuel. Therefore the system tends to lead to questions over their validity and accuracy. This work attempts to build a whole system model that includes well to wheel energy and use phase energy in more detail so as to allow better comparison of competing technologies'. The developed system is used to compare lightweight vehicles and electric vehicles against more conventional technology. The results show that despite the losses occurring throughout the electric system it is still more energy efficient in overall, but the upstream energy used in generation of electrical energy is significantly greater than for fossil fuels. The fossil fuels retain the advantages, despite the engine inefficiency, due to the high energy density of the fuel. It is also clear from the system perspective that current electric power generation is insufficient to replace all vehicles with electric. Apart from that the use of surplus value function for automotive applications is first attempted in this research. The results show this not only applicable for commercial vehicle application, but it also applicable for non-commercial vehicle application to investigate the value of the automobile ownership.

This research considers important aspects of bus service improvement through a detailed investigation of bus operations and service quality initiatives introduced in the context of an informal Quality Bus Partnership (QBP). Passengers’ views of the quality of bus service improvement were studied by comparing routes which have experienced significant improvements in quality (Superoute services, SR) with those that have not (Non Superoute services, NSR) using Tyne and Wear, UK as a case study. How seventeen service quality attributes influence passenger satisfaction in the context of their perceived importance, is investigated. Five different statistical analysis approaches, namely Descriptive, Importance and Satisfaction Analysis (ISA), Factor Analysis (FA), Cluster Analysis(CA) and Ordered Logit Regression (OLR) were adopted to endorse underlying patterns in the data and thus to add credibility to the final results. Three groups of quality attributes resulted from the Factor Analysis the first, with ten attributes, related to Service infrastructure (including cleanliness of buses and bus stops, personal security, duration of journey and cost of tickets), the second, with five attributes, was Bus Operation (including frequency of services at weekends and on a Sunday and reliability of bus arrival) and finally with two attributes, Ticket Purchase (whether purchased on the bus or at Travel Centre). Four clusters of passengers emerged from the cohort and these were used as a basis to improve understanding of the relative importance, and their associated levels, of satisfaction of the quality attributes according to the characteristics of particular passenger groups. Finding information about bus routes, security on the bus and at bus stops, conditions of shelters and friendliness of drivers emerged as improvements resulting from investment in SR. A much different picture emerged for the four cluster groups. The only groups that exhibited a higher proportion of SR users, mainly female senior citizen shoppers were satisfied with all 17 attributes, whilst the similar cohort of mainly NSR, were dissatisfied with all 17 attributes and all attributes were considered to be important. Younger adults mainly NSR users considered reliability as the only important attribute with which they were dissatisfied. Dissatisfaction for the ‘cost of tickets’ was prevalent throughout all passengers irrespective of whether NSR or SR however, SR users appeared to always be more satisfied with lower importance indicating investment has led to the perception of improvements in value for money. The results showed consistently that SR Likert scores for satisfaction were higher than other services whilst the importance scores were in the main statistically similar. The OLR showed that the quality attributes that influence the overall rating and overall quality of the service were found to be different. The results of this research provided evidence that SR services introduced, as a voluntary QBP, have influenced passenger satisfaction and lead to evidence with potential to influence the decisions of bus operators regarding investment.

Macroscopic modelling of road traffic flow is far from complete, different models exhibit strengths when used in varying situations. Continuum models, based on fluid dynamics are accurate and robust in describing traffic on a single road. Knowledge-based models, derived from heuristics based on either statistical methods or Artificial Intelligence techniques and are efficient at describing traffic processes at intersections. Neither of the existing approaches is separately able to capture effectively traffic dynamics in road networks. The thesis Introduces a hybrid macroscopic approach, combining continuum methods and knowledge-based models. It Is implemented using three different forecasting methods, namely neural network, random walk and SARIMA models each coupled with the Lighthill-Whitham and Richards continuum model. Results from numerical experiments confirm the promising features of the introduced approach in describing effectively traffic dynamics in road networks. The developed models are theoretically rigorous, numerically reliable, computationally efficient and suitable for real world applications.

Four-caster manually manoeuvred vehicles are ubiquitous with functions varying from goods movement to transport devices for disabled people. Manual handling related health and safety concerns have been raised but no theoretical study has been published. The few empirical studies which exist have not related dynamics to kinematics and no substantive guidance exists for disability adaptation planning for these vehicles. A novel graphical method of inspecting the kinematics is developed: the vehicle translational velocity regions in which diff erent combinations of wheel angular velocity directions occur are identied. Theory predicts that these varying combinations of wheel angular velocity directions, along with the caster orientations which arise from them, result in 1) different motion resistance reactions at each of the four caster assembly contacts with the vehicle-frame, 2) a variation in the proportion of the summation of those reactions to the resulting moment acting on the vehicle-frame and 3) substantial variation in the handle-forces required to balance these two motion resistance e ects. An empirical study is devised from the theory. Sixteen subjects made planar manoeuvres from static equilibrium with a maximum comfortable load while attempting to maintain eleven (maximum) different centres of zero velocity which related to the velocity regions. Results showed substantial inter-manoeuvre diff erences in maximum comfortable load: the loads of the manoeuvres with the two largest maximum comfortable loads are approximately 100% greater than the loads of the two manoeuvres with the smallest maximum comfortable load. The four-caster manually manoeuvred vehicle is mechanically omni-directional but the human operator is e ectively constrained. The results con rm the predictions for the first-order ect. The results are important for adaptation planning: environments can be planned to maximise the operator's load capacity. As the study is based on the relative di erence between manoeuvres the results are applicable to various oor coverings and vehicles. The forces-applied and space-required relationship for these vehicles is not intuitive but the results are presented graphically and are therefore accessible to those in adaptation planning services. Further work includes investigation of second-order e ects and the e ects of wall constraints rather than maintenance of centres of zero velocity. In loose but concise terms this work shows how the architectural spaces which make manoeuvres easy or di cult can be identified.

Vehicle to vehicle communication (V2VC) is one of the modern approaches for exchanging and generating traffic information with (yet to be realized) potential to improve road safety, driving comfort and traffic control. In this research, we present a novel algorithm which is based on V2V communication, uses in-vehicle sensor information and in collaboration with the other vehicles' sensor information can detect road conditions and determine the geographical area where this road condition exists – e.g. geographical area where there is traffic density, unusual traffic behaviour, a range of weather conditions (raining), etc. The algorithms' built-in automatic geographical restriction of the data collection, aggregation and dissemination mechanisms allows warning messages to be received by any car, not necessarily sharing the identified road condition, which may then be used to identify the optimum route taken by the vehicle e.g. avoid bottlenecks or dangerous areas including accidents or congestions on their current routes. This research covers the middle ground between MANET [1] and collaborative data generation based on knowledge granularity (aggregation). It investigates the possibility of designing, implementing and modelling of the functionality of an algorithm (as part of the design of an intelligent node in an Intelligent Transportation System - ITS) that ensures active participation in the formation, routing and general network support of MANETs and also helps in-car traffic information and real-time control generation and distribution. The work is natural extension of the efforts of several large EU projects like DRIVE [2], GST [3] and SAFESPOT [4]. The main difference between this research work and the research efforts outlined in these projects and related work is that they focus on V2I (Vehicle to Infrastructure) algorithms and node design, while all work related to ad-hoc wireless communication is mentioned, but not developed fully. In that respect this specific research domain is increasingly under active research consideration – utilizing ad-hoc networks algorithms for creating ad-hoc based wireless architectures and algorithms for building future intelligent information systems. The research challenge is to design, implement and investigate novel algorithms as part of an intelligent wireless information systems node design so that the functionality of the node has all the characteristics of the network node in parallel with all the characteristics of in-car data processing device. The project redefines the base line connectivity of the device and describes to what extend the functionality of the node will depend on external factors: e.g. connectivity based on the underlying wireless technology, support of the ad-hoc networks based on the speed and the type of mobility of the mobile node etc. The big difference between MANET as described so-far in the literature and the one which will be underlined by the functionality of the intelligent node described in this project is in the functionality of the active component of the MANET described here. The MANET designed in the project will be able to more effectively generate data (not network data – but user traffic data) and also will be able to take part in the on street control of the traffic lights. Although much research work worldwide is dedicated to the subject, the fact is that there are none implemented on the road traffic information systems based on ad-hoc networking, which shows that the principles of building such effective networks are yet to be discovered. The achievements of this research include introducing a novel algorithm based on the “Single Ripple” algorithm approach [5], investigating and reporting in papers the parameters transmission delay and number of hops for optimum working mode of the algorithm. The work includes also developing a simulation tool and tool for analyses of the data.

Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) have only recently discovered the exciting possibilities in the nomadic and ubiquitous computing space to build a new generation of information systems by allowing the vehicle to act both as a carrier and consumer of wireless (and thus omnipresent) information. Wide deployment of such ITS systems may eventually allow for more dynamic and efficient transportation systems, which can contribute in several ways towards greater economic growth whilst respecting environmental sustainability. A great number of researchers have dedicated considerable time and resources to tackling traffic related issues by utilising the new wireless capabilities enabled by ITS; such initiatives cover a wide range of applications such as safety, knowledge sharing and infotainment. Indicative of the extent of such efforts is the plethora of research projects initiated by many national and multi-national organisations such as the EU Framework Programme for Research and Technological Development. To achieve their goals, proposed solutions from such organisations depend on the development and deployment of intelligent wireless mobile communication systems, where data dissemination issues make the prospect of efficient and effective communication a challenging proposition. Presently, Car-to-Car and Car-to-Infrastructure communications are two distinct avenues that make possible efficient and reliable delivery of messages via direct radio links in traffic areas. In all cases, high quality of communication performance is desirable for a communication system composed mostly of roaming participants; such a system needs to be dynamic, flexible and infrastructure-less. Consequently, Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET)-based networks are a natural fit to ITS. This thesis establishes a new Collaborative MANET-based Communication Network (CMCN) architecture for the generation and control of distributed collaborative real-time information. In urban traffic scenarios, CMCN nodes are classified as mobile, semi-mobile and static according to their mobility patterns. For a CMCN system, a novel supporting Probabilistic Traffic Message Delivery Algorithm (PTMDA) is designed based on the broadcast characteristics of 802.11p. PTMDA features a set of probabilistic priority events that satisfy efficient and reliable inter-vehicle communications. Further, PTMDA is extensively compared to several existing broadcasting-based routing protocols in realistic urban scenarios based on actual traffic traces from a major metropolitan centre in the UK. The simulation results illustrate that the new routing mechanism and its message dissemination mechanisms enable lower end-to-end delay, larger reachability and higher ratio of successful message transmissions than other state-of-the-art approaches.

As an integrated transport solution, ITS (Intelligent Transport Systems) produce direct benefits for the traveller and operator and bring indirect benefits for society as a whole. Nevertheless, insufficient ITS funding holds back ITS development. PPP (Public Private Partnerships) offers an alternative financing channel, which can be advantageous for both public and private parties. Due to the characteristics of ITS, it can be difficult to attract the private sector to invest in some ITS projects where there is a fluctuating profit stream or where the profits cannot cover the investment. In addition, due to the existence of asymmetric information, it is possible for the private company to abuse his/her advantage in information over the public authority to seek excessive private gains. The aim of this research is to develop an incentive mechanism for a PPP contract for the provision of ITS, not only to motivate the private company to enter ITS markets but also to reduce the impact of asymmetric information between the two parties. The benefits and risks to both parties of entering into a contract for ITS provision are revealed in the World Bank and USDOT (United States Department of Transport) databases. ITS costs, potential funding sources, and the economic aspects of ITS are examined. The variety and interdependency of ITS cost components imply that it is possible for the private company to reduce costs under an appropriate incentive mechanism. Additional profit streams can diversify ITS funding sources and make it possible for otherwise low profit or non profit ITS systems to be provided without using government subsidy or an increase road user tolls. In this thesis, an investigation is conducted of ITS provision through PPPs in China, to investigate how they are used in the Chinese road sector and the bottlenecks in ITS development. There are two case studies to show how government regulation is used to encourage ITS provision through user payment and through subsidy. These findings provide a useful reference point for other areas of the world and are especially relevant to developing countries. A comprehensive evaluation framework is developed in this thesis to assess the ITS benefits to the travellers and the wider benefits to the community. Two case studies are presented to demonstrate these methods. In case study One, an SP survey of 1,357 motorway users was conducted in 2007, which examines travellers’willingness to pay for three distinct ITS systems on the Shanghai motorway network. In case study Two, using both AHP and REGIME models, an evaluation of the degree of traffic impact of these three ITS systems is presented. Their relative importance in Shanghai ITS motorway management is then established. This research leads to the development of a theoretical model which incorporates suitable incentive mechanisms for ITS provision through PPPs, on the basis that both parties expect value for money. Complexity has been increased in this model by introducing a subsidy and a shadow cost of subsidy variable, which has not been used in the previous literature. The relationship between subsidy and the efficiency level of the private sector is discussed under conditions of information asymmetry and symmetry. The model shows that it is possible for the private company to maximize the benefits of both the public authority and private company under two constraints, namely Individual Rationality (IR) and Incentive Compatibility (IC). Two working examples sourced from the case studies of two different ITS systems are used to calculate the potential profit and risk costs, first under a flexible payment scheme and then how this simplified by the use of an ITS incentive model. These examples strengthen the argument for the use of incentive models and contribute to ITS project profit control, which is the key for a successful ITS project through PPP.

Experiments were conducted to investigate the way humans solve Capacitated Vehicle Routing Problems (CVRPs), a problem class in which the shortest set of tours must be found around a set of weighted nodes using a capacity-limited vehicle. The first two experiments explored human performance in drawing solutions to problems of different complexity in terms of number of routes, nodes and weights to be summed. They also included as an experimental factor Verbalisation, both to provide a qualitative indicator of performance and also to examine the impact of verbalisation on performance. The qualitative results of Experiment 1 indicated two major types of strategists: Calculators and Clusterers. Clusterers performed faster and in some of the problems found solutions closer to the optimal than calculators. The major errors that participants performed were errors of calculation, nodes missing and drawing too few routes. Results from Experiment 2 suggest that humans are showing the best performance in problems with low calculation demands while they exhibit the worst performance in the problems with negligible calculation demands, thus suggesting that in order to provide very close to optimal solutions in CVRPs it is necessary to retain some calculation demand load to promote a more optimising behaviour. New strategies have been revealed in Experiment 2 and Verbalisation again did not influence the human performance. Further qualitative and quantitative analyses of the verbalisations and human performance in Experiment 1 showed that Visuospatial strategies such as Anchoring and Clustering are predictors of good performance while Arithmetic strategies such as Balancing generate poor performance. In Experiment 2, the best performances were exhibited when participants were using either Visuospatial strategies or Arithmetic strategies. The success and failure of the adoption of these strategies is dependant on the problem complexity and the cognitive load. A third 14 ..... ------------.~~-~~~ -- experiment revealed that error-trapping did not influence the human performance. The results informed the specification and design of a Capacitated Vehicle Routing Problem Solver implemented in Java. A pilot study was completed that led to a revaluation of the software. A later version was implemented and tested empirically. Experiment 4 revealed that humans interaction with the Capacitated Vehicle Routing Problem Solver to solve CVRPs significantly improved their performance leading to the generation of very close to optimal routes.

Electric vehicle (EV) research has gained increasing prominence over the last decade as EVs have become the only alternative means of personal transportation available for public purchase and use compared to conventional petrol/diesel road vehicles. Enhancing public understanding of alternative technologies is particularly important in the case of EVs; an innovative technology with climate change mitigation potential. Thus far, research on communication has focused on the influences on scientific knowledge uptake of diverse public characteristics. This research has been dominated by consumer perspectives within urban contexts. This study therefore explores EV knowledge mobilisation from academia, via key communication intermediaries (media, industry, non-governmental organisations, policy-makers) to publics in a peri-urban setting; characterised as a rural landscape with pockets of urbanisation. Cornwall, UK provides the geographical case of such a landscape. Academic knowledges pertaining to the environmental and human health impacts of EVs were critically examined using qualitative content analysis, with the same analysis method used to gain insights into how these knowledges have been portrayed by the communication intermediaries above. The active roles of academics in the communication process, and diverse publics as knowledge assimilators, were also explored through semi-structured interviews (academics) and focus groups (publics within Cornwall). The findings highlight a disparity between academic research and the knowledges entering the public domain. Although sophisticated communication techniques have been developed to enhance public awareness of climate change science, these seem to be missing from EV communications. The key findings of this study highlight the need for meticulously planned communications, with audiences profiled in detail and communication structured reflexively. This study therefore develops and illustrates the relevance to EV knowledge mobilisation of existing theories and practices, including participatory geographies, citizen science and systems network thinking. It highlights opportunities to achieve a shift towards a participatory network of EV knowledge mobilisation within specific contexts in order to improve public understanding of these knowledges. Interestingly, the history of science literature can provide 'a suite of lost communication methods that have previously been successful. Furthermore, the need to catalyse a generational shift, whereby science engagement becomes more prevalent amongst publics through reflexive engagement and education, is also examined.