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This thesis examines the incorporation of smoking into late Elizabethan and early Stuart culture and society, politics and commerce. Drawing upon a rich variety of primary sources and adopting an interdisciplinary approach, it shows how the English encountered, evaluated and accommodated this new and controversial Amerindian activity. It emphasises the seldom recognised distinction between the European medico-botanical appropriation of tobacco poultices, infusions etc. and the English adoption of smoking as a recreation arguing that patterns of smoking were, from the start, inherently incompatible with ideas of the appropriate use of medicines. This incompatibility prompted medical and moral debates identifying smoking as the misuse of a powerful drug. This thesis argues for the first time that smoking spread, despite objections, not because it was medicinal but because it was culturally attractive, particularly to young men. As demand for tobacco rose, tobacco became increasingly important politically and commercially. This thesis examines the evolution of policies to control and profit from rising domestic demand for tobacco under James VI & I and Charles I. By 1640, the commodity craved by smokers had been embroiled in disputes about monopolies, taxation, the Virginia colonies and, with the unprecedented introduction of tobacco vending licences in the 1630s, even the royal prerogative. The thesis concludes with the first detailed nation-wide examination of the early retail trade in tobacco which unveils a mixed economy of small and large-scale tobacco trading supplying smokers in all corners of England with tobacco by the pound, ounce, pennyworth or pipeful. England had learned to smoke.

Background Evidence suggests exposure to film smoking increases youth smoking, and this is also likely to be the case for television. Some evidence suggests alcohol in films and television has similar effects on drinking behaviours. It is therefore important to document the extent to which tobacco and alcohol occur in films and television in the UK. Methods Films (1989-2008) and television broadcasting were content coded for tobacco and alcohol including branding, use, paraphernalia, inferred use, and other reference. These episodes were measured using interval recording whereby intervals of film and television were coded for each coding category listed above if at least one such incident occurred during the interval. Results In films, tobacco occurred in 70% of films; 68% of youth rated films. Tobacco fell substantially 1989-2008 for all categories, except branding. Brands were most common in the 15 age category, and 82% were certified as suitable for viewing by those under 18. Brands were most commonly either Marlboro or Silk Cut. Alcohol appeared in 86% of films, and branding in 35%. Alcohol use and branded appearances were higher in 1989, but the frequency of these and other categories changed little in subsequent years. Most films containing alcohol were classified as suitable for youth viewing. The most frequently shown brands were Budweiser, Miller and Coors. On television tobacco occurred in 34% broadcast programmes, and in more than half of all films, reality TV, and comedy programmes. Use occurred in 12% of programmes, particularly films and reality TV. Brands were rare, but several appeared in Coronation Street. Alcohol was commonly portrayed, appearing in 52% of programmes and 37% of advertisements/trailers, and most commonly in soap operas, films, sport, and comedy genres, while use was common in both soap operas and films. Brands were most common in sports programmes, news, and soap operas, with those most frequently being Heineken, Budweiser and Carlsberg. Conclusion These substances are common in films and television in the UK, and are more common in films than on television. Alcohol is more pervasive in films and television than tobacco. Given the evidence on the effects of on-screen smoking and drinking on youth behaviours, measures need to be implemented to restrict these substances in media frequently accessed by young people.

Cette thèse examine la carrière des polyusagers récréationnels de drogues à travers une perspective pluridisciplinaire. Cette perspective rend compte de la complexité du phénomène en intégrant des éléments de neurologie dans une approche sociologique. Ces éléments théoriques sont intégrés dans un modèle multi-agents visant à tester cette approche et à étendre ses résultats. Afin d‘informer ce modèle, trente-huit entretiens compréhensifs ont été réalisés auprès de polyusagers socialement intégrés. Après une première phase où la consommation de drogues est orientée vers l'intégration au groupe de pairs et à l'apprentissage des techniques de consommation, les usagers tendent à instrumentaliser les drogues pour faciliter leur adaptation aux normes contemporaines et gérer les contraintes sociales. La polyconsommation semble être le paroxysme de l‘instrumentalisation des psychotropes et peut revêtir quatre formes permettant aux usagers récréationnels de faire varier à dessein leurs états physiques et psychologiques. La dernière phase de la carrière est caractérisée par un accroissement des techniques de contrôle permettant aux individus de concilier leurs usages avec l'accroissement de leurs obligations sociales. Le statut d'usager "contrôleur" est défini en opposition avec le stéréotype de l'usager dépendant, participant à l'étiquetage de ces derniers en tant que déviant. Les résultats de l'enquête empirique ont été formalisés à l'aide de diagrammes visuels avant d‘être implémentés dans la plateforme NetLogo. Le modèle créé, baptisé SimUse, fut vérifié à travers plusieurs scénarios évaluant l‘adéquation entre les algorithmes implémentés et les données empiriques recueillies. / This thesis investigates the career of recreational polydrug users through a pluridisciplinary perspective. This perspective captures the complexity of this phenomenon by integrating data from neurology with a sociological approach. These theoretical elements are integrated into a multi-agent model aiming to test this approach and extend its results. To inform the model, thirty-eight qualitative interviews were conducted with socially-integrated polyusers. After a first phase where drug consumption is oriented toward peers group integration and during which consumption techniques are learnt, the users tend to instrument drugs to facilitate their adaptation to modern social norms and manage social constrains. The polyconsumption appears to be the climax of this psychoactive substances instrumenting and could take four forms permitting the users to make vary their physical and psychological states at will. The last phase of the career is characterized by an increase in control techniques allowing individuals to conciliate their consumptions with the increase of their daily obligations. The status of controller user is defined by opposition to the stereotype of the dependant user, which participates to the labeling of these latter as deviant users. These empirical results have been formalized through visual diagrams before being implemented into the NetLogo platform. The model created, called SimUse, was verified by the means of several scenarios assessing the consistency between the implemented algorithms and collected empirical data.

Depuis quelques années, on assiste à une augmentation de la consommation de cocaïne en population générale. Partant du constat qu’une très large frange de ces nouveaux usagers ne sont connus ni des services de police, ni des instances judiciaires, ni des associations, ni même des professionnels du soin, cette thèse propose de contribuer à une meilleure approche de cette population dite cachée.Grâce à une enquête de terrain s’étalant sur trois années et mêlant observation in situ, partage de leur quotidien et entretiens, ce travail de recherche vise à démontrer que les usagers récréatifs cachés de cocaïne échappent à toutes les représentations traditionnellement associées aux usagers de drogues. Par un travail de reconceptualisation symbolique de leur pratique, ils se démarquent complètement de la catégorie du « toxicomane ». Dans un pays où les institutions au contact d’usagers de drogues restent opio-centrées, c’est à dire où le référent analytique en matière de drogues est toujours le consommateur dépendant d’opiacés, ces usagers récréatifs occasionnels, insérés socialement et professionnellement, constituent une population ne pouvant pas être captéepar les-dites institutions. Par une démarche compréhensive, en analysant la manière dont ces usagers vivent et se représentent leur propre pratique, cette recherche apporte un éclairage nouveau sur la consommation gérée de drogues dures et permet de repenser la question de la criminalisation d’usages qui semblent assumés et contrôlés. / Cocaine consumption has been expanding significantly in the past few years among the general population. Seeing that a large portion of these new consumers remain unknown to the police, the judicial authorities, associations, and even health care professionals, this thesis aims to provide a better insight into this socalled hidden population. A three years of field investigation combining in situ observation, interviews, and everyday life-sharing has evidenced the fact that hidden recreational cocaine users cannot possibly be identified with the traditionalrepresentation of ordinary drug consumers. The widely different symbolic value they attach to their drug usage keeps them radically worlds apart from the “drug addict” category.In this country, the drug users care institutions mostly deal with opiate drug addicts, which means that their analytical approach remains opium-oriented; consequently, the occasional users of recreational drugs who are fully integrated into society and lead a normal social and professional life, find themselves outside the scope of afore-mentioned institutions. Through an interpretative approach and analysis of the way these users live and visualize their own practice, this study intends to shed new light on the seemingly controlled consumption of hard drugs, making it possible to reconsider the question of its status as a criminal offence.