The phenomenon of how tests influence teaching and learning is commonly described in language education as "washback". The purpose of this study was to investigate how English teachers in Libyan schools were influenced by introducing a reformed EFL public examination, called the Basic Education Certificate Examination (BECE), in terms of their instructional practices—the how; and teaching materials and curriculum—the what. The study also sought to examine the effect of any other teacher and context-dependent variables on washback. Three main aspects were studied: teachers’ perception of the exam (perception washback); classroom teaching and testing practices (methodology washback); and teachers’ choice, selection and use of teaching materials (curriculum washback). To address these issues, a mixed methods approach was utilized. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyse quantitative data obtained from surveying 100 teachers. Content analysis was then conducted to interpret qualitative data elicited from documents, observations of two teachers and interviews with 11 teachers and 7 inspectors. The study found that teachers expressed negative rather than positive views towards the exam. Findings indicated that the introduced exam did exert washback on teachers’ instructional practices. However, washback was noticed in issues related to classroom testing practices rather than in teaching practices. As the new BECE did not represent the current curriculum, negative washback was observed on the content of the curriculum: some teachers tended to rely on the “hidden syllabus”, while others narrowed the syllabus to meet the content of the exam. While some desired aims were achieved through the exam, others were not. The intensity and direction of washback was shown to be influenced by mediating variables such as the teacher and the context: the data indicated differences between veteran and novice teachers, and their level of education also affected their response to the exam. Gender was irrelevant. The grade level and class size taught was also associated with impact. The findings of the study indicate how examination reform can be used as leverage of pedagogical change and to dictate the how and the what of teaching, but to different degrees. The study made it crystal clear that washback does exist, but that it operates in a complex manner associated with other variables besides the exam per se. Thus the study suggests that washback cannot be a theory because it seemed not to have predictive power. This study also suggests guidance for future policies for improvement of the examination system in Libyan schools, arguing for alignment of examinations and the English curriculum, with some recommendations as to how this may be achieved.

A large body of empirical research has suggested that lexis is a major concern for learners and teachers in the language classroom context. A wide recognition of the crucial role of lexis in language learning and teaching culminated in sets of principles proposed by some vocabulary researchers (Barcroft, 2002; Laufer, 2005a; Meara, 2005; Nation, 2005a; Sökmen, 1997; Zimmerman, 2008). However, it is important to acknowledge that teachers know more about the constraints and demands of their own contexts than decontextualised expert principles can allow for. In the present study, the underlying reasons why teachers teach lexis in the way they do are examined. Particularly, the main thrust of the study is to explore the relationship between two EAP teachers‘ cognitions and practices of lexis teaching in preparatory schools of two private universities in Turkey. The data generation instruments used in the study include classroom observations, field notes, stimulated recall, and semi-structured follow-up interviews. The findings of the study suggest that although the teachers have students with similar profiles and characteristics they seem to have different tendencies towards provision of lexical knowledge. Apart from the factors underpinning the difference in their tendencies, the relationship between teachers‘ cognitions and practices of lexis teaching were also identified with specific reference to the determinants that have a role to play in the correspondence between their beliefs and actual classroom behaviour. With its implications for teacher education and teacher cognition research, this case study also complements classroom-based research into form-focused instruction in general and lexis instruction in particular.

The role of metalinguistic knowledge in L2/FL learning continues to be a subject of debate. Some researchers downplay its role (Alderson et al, 1997; Elder et al, 1999), but others hypothesise that this knowledge forms a stepping stone towards L2 proficiency (Sorace, 1985; Roehr & Ganem-Gutierrez, 2009). While there is a consensus that writing and reading lend themselves most to its influence, research on its role in speaking is still relatively thin on the ground. Empirical studies indicate that metalinguistic knowledge has a significant effect on child L2 learners' oral linguistic performance (e.g. White and Ranta, 2002; Serrano, 2011). As for adult L2 learners, existing findings show that learners' accurate use of grammar constructions correlates with their ability to articulate explicit rules describing these constructions (e.g. Scheffler and Cinciala, 2010). The current study aimed to explore the potential role of metalinguistic knowledge in oral grammatical accuracy, fluency and self-correction in L1 Arabic university-level learners of English (N = 64), targeting a broad range of grammar constructions. The participants were asked to take a one-to-one speaking test, an English placement test, and a metalinguistic assessment test. In addition, 19 participants took part in stimulated recall of part of their recorded interviews. The results show that there is a positive relationship of moderate strength between metalinguistic knowledge and speaking accuracy, and this relationship appears to be influenced by metalinguistic-related variables, such as perceived difficulty of grammar points and prototypicality of rules. Metalinguistic knowledge also · correlates positively at moderate strength with speaking fluency, represented by words per minute, and negatively at moderate strength with speaking dysfluency, represented by pauses per hundred words. Additionally, metalinguistic knowledge correlates moderately with successful self-correction in speaking. A comparison between learners at different stages of L2 learning gives a piece of evidence for durability of metalinguistic knowledge in a poorly-communicative L2 learning context. The results are most compatible with the explicit-implicit strong interface position.

No description available.

Greater learner autonomy has, in recent decades, become recognised as a worthy goal in the field of foreign language learning. However, it is difficult to find a consensus view in the literature concerning the definition of the concept. One area of debate is the extent to which autonomy in language learning (ALL) is universally applicable, or whether versions of autonomy exist which are defined culturally or contextually. To attempt to address this debate, a study was carried out in the specific context of Malaysian higher education. The subjects were four cohorts. totalling 31 participants, of Malay trainee English teachers in a Malaysian public university. The aim was to examine the conceptions, practices and cultural influences of autonomy in language learning. Q Methodology was chosen as a means of systematically exploring subjective viewpoints, enabling pattern recognition of perspectives obtained. To provide further insight into the topic, three interviews were carried out. Findings relating to the conceptions found in the data obtained showed that there were four perspectives to autonomy in language learning in this particular context. To the questions on practices, findings indicated that practices of autonomy in language learning were more prominently located in the classroom, although the role of learning outside of the classroom was acknowledged. Findings on the role of culture suggested that an amalgamation of the individual and the social is encouraged. In addition to looking at the perspectives on autonomy in language education, this study carried out an investigation concerning the extent of effectiveness of Q Methodology for researching subjectivities in autonomy in language learning. The findings showed that the prospect is encouraging for Q Methodology is found to be educational. creative and environmentally friendly. This study offers a development to the dynamic concept of autonomy in language learning by suggesting that the incorporation of the collectivist and Islamic perspectives of Malay culture to the concept will encourage greater autonomy in language learning among Malay trainee teachers. The use of Q Methodology, which can be constructive for participants and researchers alike, is enriching, and using Q Methodology in appropriate language learning research is encouraged.

This study focuses on the teaching processes involved in foreign language learning, concentrating on the question of why Greek young learners are not more successful in learning English, despite an early start and high exposure to the foreign language. Central to my study are student-teacher and student-student interactions within Engli sh language classrooms, including any linguistic, pedagogical, motivational or cultural aspects that infonn these interactions and student learning. The study aims to extend the understanding of bow to implement interactive methods within the specific region and develop learners' English communicative competence in an examination-oriented education system. The first part of my study provides an exploratory research, which has been pursued in both state schools and frodistiria in a specific Greek region. Research methods included: lesson observations, teacher interviews and transcription analysis. The second part of the research introduces an intervention study dimension, which consisted of monitoring and modification to classroom practice, exploring the perspective of shifting teaching and learning, providing potential of a new Young Language Leaming philosophy within the Greek context. This part of the research was achieved in a frodistirio in classes of students aged 7-11 in order to improve current language learning clas ses and use the data for cross-sectional comparative purposes. Data collection included open-ended field notes, video-recorded lessons and speaking tasks were audio recorded. A group of older learners attending English Proficiency classes for the preparation of Certificate of Proficiency Exams (ePE), aged 14-15 years old, based in the frodistirio, were also interviewed on their past experience of English language learning in state schools and frodistiria. The Director of the frodistirio, observed 10 language lessons during the research period. These observations provide feedback on students' reactions to interactive tasks from an external reviewer. Finally, parents were requested to complete a questionnaire at the end of the academic year, regarding their children's progress and their feelings of the new methods introduced. The thesis reveals the complexities and paradoxes embedded in the learning environment of English for Young Learners (EYL) in South Western Greece. The findings include the identification of an effective interactive methodology that might be applied in the specific regional setting as an outcome of my own teaching and research. The research in question, explores the potential that exists both within the educational structure and in Young Language Learning (YLL) in Greece. It introduces interactive language learning and identifies its role within this context. The research can contribute to the enablement of successful language learners in an environment where children learn to appreciate the foreign language and encounter it as means of communication and not for examination purposes only.

Questions which prompted interest in this area of research in 1988 Has the introduction of the National Curriculum with its concomitant statutory requirements made any measurable difference to students' responses to MFL classroom activities? If so, then in what way and to what extent might MFL study be now more (or less) appealing to more able 13-15 year-old students in local 11-16 LM Comprehensives? The last large-scale attempt to explore pupils' views on MFL classroom activities was in 1985, as part of the Assessment of Performance Unit (APU) surveys in Secondary Schools. There has been no attempt using the techniques of applied research to investigate pupils' views since the introduction of GCSE or indeed the National Curriculum. Despite this the research of Chambers, Clarke and Stables and Wikeley in the 1990s provided significant insight into the health of the subject at secondary level. Many of the concerns raised in these works are echoed in action research based in local schools in West Essex-in particular, the impact of target language teaching, the question of relevancy and the declining popularity of Languages. The research aims to record students' responses to the PoS and to find possible reasons for these constructs. The results will be compared with other findings including those of the APU from 1985. Using the Programme of Study as a means of measurement seems a worthwhile starting point. This statutory requirement of the National Curriculum forms a blueprint for MFL teaching and learning and could constitute the framework of an investigation into student responses to MFL tasks and skills. Furthermore, teachers teach increasingly by consensus. Professionals should constantly seek to exploit better the preferred learning activities of their students; if MFL staff do not know what these are they need a working model to find out this information. The research also makes use of APU questionnaires to assess the perceived enjoyment, usefulness and difficulty of MFL study as well as measuring the level of desired contact with other European students. Findings of the investigation in 2000. Many of the findings of this study may be said to report favourably on aspects of the PoS inMFL. Among the more positive responses were: • communicating with each other in pairs and groups, and with their teacher. This largely underlined the popularity of role-plays; • developing understanding and skills through a range of language activities, e.g. games, role-play, surveys and other investigations discuss their own ideas. Discuss interests and experiences and compare them with those of others. Listen, read or view for personal interest and enjoyment, as well as for information This reflected the preference of many teenagers for exercising a degree of control in the pace and direction of the tasks set; • listening and responding to different types of spoken language. Skimming and scanning texts, including databases where appropriate, for information. This suggests that such exercises are popular for reasons that are likely to be related to pace of work; • using a range of resources for communicating, e.g. telephone, electronic mail, fax, letters; • redrafting writing to improve its accuracy and presentation, e.g. by wordprocessing. Using dictionaries and reference materials. Students are not always comfortable with the seemingly random nature of language and welcome quick methods of eliminating doubt and establishing accuracy; • Express agreement, disagreement, personal feeling and opinions. Learning by heart phrases and short extracts, e.g. rhymes, poems, songs, jokes, tongue twisters. Pupils enjoy such activities but are critical when the material is unappealing. However, many of the findings indicated less positive experiences of the students in MFL. These included: • A significantly low level of perceived enjoyment in MFL study among average and more able students in all three schools in the study falling from an already \O\,v base in Year 9 to lower levels in Year 10 and Year 11; • This experience is often more pronounced in MFL than in other GCSE subjects; • A reluctance to use the target language as a means of communication. Elements of the PoS most strongly connected to this finding were: using language for real purposes, as well as to practise skills, using everyday classroom events as a context for spontaneous speech, initiating and developing conversations, developing strategies for dealing with the unpredictable, producing a variety of types of writing, asking about meanings, seek clarification or repetition in the TL. • Teachers do not always accurately assess the popularity or unpopularity of MFL classroom tasks; • Definitions of difficulty are often determined by levels of motivation; • The desire for contact with the target language community is minimal and there are low levels of integrative motivation in all three schools; • Ethnocentricity does not appear to contribute to this; • Comparisons with 1985 APU findings indicate a far more negative outlook for MFL study in some West Essex schools with virtually no interest in post 16 MFL study.

In this thesis, I present a study in which I investigate language-in-education policy and practices in four schools in Pakistan: School (A) and (B) are both fee-charging private English-medium schools, located in Karachi, with a wide margin between their fee structure. School (C) is a no-tuition-fee, public sector Urdu-medium school, located in Quetta, north-west of Pakistan, and School (D) is also a no-tuition-fee Urdu-medium religious school in Karachi, locally known as a Dini Madrassah. The study aimed to address the following over-arching research questions: 1) What is the relationship between the language-in-education policy of Pakistan and the everyday language practices found in its schools? '2) How do pupils, teachers and parents become socialized into the language practices of a school, in the classrooms, at school functions and in the social spaces in the school? 3) How are the languages of pupils, teachers and parents valued/legitimized or constrained by the schools' overt and covert language practices? 4) Why is a particular discursive practice legitimized in some schools but not in others? Following the critical interpretive tradition of research on multilingual classroom discourse (Martin-Jones and Heller, 1996; Heller & Martin-Jones, 2001), I combined methods and perspectives mainly from post-structuralist theory (Bourdieu, 1991), critical ethnographic sociolinguistics (Heller, 2011), and sociolinguistics (Bakhtin, 1986; Gumperz, 1982). I gathered data using a number of different methods, mainly: observation, audio-recording, note-taking, interviews, photography and the use of a questionnaire. The findings of the study suggest that there is a mismatch between the language practices observed in these schools and language policy at the government level. The language practices of the research participants are more complex than they are assumed to be at the governmental policy level and in findings of survey-based research on language-in-education in Pakistan.

Task-Based Language Teaching has been the subject of a considerable amount of research and writing over the last 25 years and in more recent years has been considered to be one of the current orthodoxies in the field of English Language Teaching in particular. However, in what is sometimes called the "post methods era" in second/foreign language teaching, teachers are less likely to base their practices on any single approach or method. Task-based language teaching as an approach to English language teaching and learning is explored in this thesis in the form of a case study in order to examine the ways that language teachers make use of theory and research presented to them in the professional literature and on training courses. The literature on teacher cognition, expertise and professional knowledge is reviewed. In addition, an account of models and processes of teacher learning, teacher change, and the relationship between research, theory and practice in second/foreign language teaching is developed to provide a backdrop for the empirical investigation. A qualitative research approach was used to gather and analyse observation and interview data. An intensive case study of four teachers was carried out in order to examine the knowledge, beliefs, attitudes and practices of mid-career teachers of English as a foreign language to adults. These are then related to the literature on the task-based approach to language teaching. Findings include the fact that teachers have only indirect access to researchers' and theorists' discussions on the task-based approach and on SLA more generally, and may not be aware of the principles underlying language teaching approaches. Furthermore, teachers draw selectively on aspects of different approaches and combine these with aspects of other approaches. The nature of the relationship between research, theory and practice which is revealed has implications for teacher development, teacher education and the ways in which theory and researchi s disseminatedto languaget eaching professionals.

Motivation is an area of language learning where researchers and practitioners share a vested interest. A major question arising out of second language learning (L2) motivation research in recent years is how to conceptualise and measure its situated dimensions. A lack of development in methodological approaches and conceptualisations which continue to treat L2 motivation as a cognitive and unobservable constmct mean that addressing such issues is not straightforward. This study investigates how L2 motivation is collaboratively achieved in the moment-to-moment dynamics of L2 learning and teaching practices.