The overall research question was whether the L2 in a multicompetent dynamic language system would become faster and more readily accessible to the speaker than his/her L1 after the speaker had lived in L2 environments for a number of years. The participants consisted of two test groups (German L1 speakers in the UK, and English L1 speakers in German speaking Switzerland) and three control groups (monolingual German speakers in Germany with no English, monolingual Swiss German speakers in Switzerland with no English1, and monolingual English speakers in the UK with neither Swiss German nor Standard German). Methods / instruments. A cross-linguistic experiment, a verbal fluency task and a sociolinguistic questionnaire. The analysis was carried out in three steps: 1) Comparison of group and individual access results from the cross-linguistic experiment; 2) testing six basic variables through the sociolinguistic questionnaire: the participant’s attitude towards him/herself as an attriter, the view of the participant’s peers of themselves as an attriter, the ‘length of stay in L2 environment’, ‘entry age’, ‘regular use of L1’ and ‘regular use of L2’; 3) identification of factors responsible for individual participants’ advantages by looking at four individuals in case studies. Step 1 confirmed that participants recognise and access words of their languages in a given period of time (‘Preliminary Hypothesis’). The main hypotheses that L2 words are accessed faster and that they are more readily accessible were only confirmed for individuals, but not for the ‘Group Perspective’. Step two confirmed the influence of the duration of stay and the extent to which attrition can be explained by this element. Step three, the case studies, showed the influence of early age of entry for attrition of the L1 for one participant out of the four, and of the length of stay in L2 environments for three of the participants. The conclusion is that the duration of stay in L2 environment and entry age, as well as the existence of at least one other language in the multicompetent and dynamic language system play an important role in L1 attrition. Age did not play such a highly influential role as the existence of a second language. The two languages are accommodated in the same mind and form a language supersystem (Cook 2003a). Their being merged must not be understood as a monolithic fusion but as the structured, dynamic cooperation of two (or in the case of multilinguals more) languages in one unified system. The findings confirm the influence of two languages in a merged, multicompetent, dynamic language system on each other’s accessibility, reacting on environmental input (‘adaptability’ in Dynamic Systems terminology) and communicational demands. The factor ‘time’ related to the variable ‘length of stay’ in the present study is considered the most important force in processes involving dynamic systems.

Second language listening and vocabulary knowledge are closely related: vocabulary knowledge is required for successful listening, and listening is a prime vehicle for the acquisition of vocabulary. However, a look at the literature reveals surprisingly little research on both sides of this relationship. This thesis attempts to contribute to filling this gap by exploring both in turn. Studies 1 and 2 explore vocabulary knowledge in listening. Study 1 assesses learners' knowledge of the meaning of isolated word forms, and compares this to their knowledge of these same words in written and spoken context (i.e. in reading and listening tasks). This reveals a gap between knowledge of isolated and contextualised words, as well as between knowledge in the two modalities. Study 2 directly compares knowledge of isolated written and spoken word forms, which shows more similarities between the two than found by previous research. It also assesses knowledge of these same spoken word forms in context (i.e. continuous speech), and again finds a gap between knowledge of isolated and contextualised spoken vocabulary. Studies 3 and 4 focus on vocabulary knowledge from listening. Few studies have explored the incidental learning of vocabulary from listening, or how listeners go about inferring the meaning of unknown words. Study 3 assesses Ll and L2 listeners' success in inferencing word meaning, and also considers several variables that might affect their success. Study 4 measures L2 listeners' acquisition of vocabulary through spoken input. It takes a more thorough approach than previous research, in that it assesses the learning of dimensions besides the form-meaning link. Overall, the studies in this thesis emphasise the need of more research attention to spoken vocabulary knowledge, especially in continuous speech. They also reveal the potential of listening for expanding vocabulary knowledge, and provide insights into factors affecting success in inferencing and acquisition.

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This thesis is a linguistic ethnographic study of the introduction of Turkish-language classes in Greek-Cypriot Formal Education, a new initiative taken by the Cyprus Ministry of Education in 2003. Taking into account the history of conflict between the two communities, this project deals with the discursive (re-)negotiations of ethnic difference and ethnic relations that occur in classes where the subject to be taught is the language of 'The Other'. Focusing in particular on two Turkish-language classes in a Greek-Cypriot secondary school, the thesis draws mainly on data collected during five months of ethnographic fieldwork. With post-structuralist and anti-essentialist theoretical tools informing the ethnographic approach, and analytical frameworks from interactional sociolinguistics, it investigates how the details of classroom interaction connect with larger-scale processes, such as: i) the history of intercommunal/interethnic hostility and rival nationalisms; ii) educationald iscourseso f `Hellenic Paideia'; iii) processesa nd discoursess hapedb oth inside and outsideC yprus (i. e. EU entry, initiatives for reconciliation); iv) students' repertoires shaped in contexts outside the classroom (i. e. youth organisations, football fan-clubs etc). At the institutional level, the setting up of the language classes emerged as part of an effort to improve the relations of the two communities and was thus in line with EU processes and the attempts at the time to resolve the `Cyprus Issue'. However, the empirical investigation shows that the ideology of 'rapprochement' underpinning this initiative was not compatible with the hegemonic institutional ideology of Hellenocentrism that sees the neighbouring community as 'The Other'. Both the teacher and the students appeared to recognise the formal lesson as a site that did not permit any alternative discourses (e. g. leftist discourses) and such discourses were silenced, whispered, or met with resistance. The ideological conflict between 'rapprochement' and `Hellenic Paideia' appeared to pose significant complications to the teaching process, and in the classes studied, the Turkish-language teacher struggled to mediate the two ideologies and simultaneously deal with the history and the current situation in Cyprus. Nevertheless, when talking outside the frame of a formal lesson, there were students who appeared competent in discussing Cyprus politics and demonstrated the ability to handle the tension caused by the ideological contestation involved.

This thesis is an investigation of the differences in language use between teachers and students in content and language integrated classrooms (CLIL) in a Saudi higher education context. It examines the use of the short response tokens "yes", "yeah" and "no" in four subject-specific classrooms where English is used as a medium of instruction. Adopting a social constructivist approach to learning, the study was conducted over two phases, one qualitative, using the principles of conversation analysis, the other quantitative, using corpus linguistics. This approach to analysis highlights the importance of combining conversation analysis with other quantitative methods such as corpus linguistics to enhance understandings of classroom interaction. The use of the two methods helps us to understand the relationship between language, interaction and the orientation to scientific knowledge in CLIL classrooms. The thesis is a contribution to the existing body of knowledge on CLIL. However, unlike what has been done so far (e.g. Dalton-Puffer 2007; Nikhula 2005) this thesis focuses on the interaction inside CLIL classrooms using a micro-analytic account of turn-taking practices, repair and preference organization. By using a conversation analytic perspective, the thesis reflects on the relationship between socialization and learning in CLIL with special attention given to the active role of response tokens in talk-in-interaction as used by teachers and students. Finally, the thesis demonstrates how teachers and students use response tokens differently as a step towards understanding the interactional architecture (Seedhouse 2004) of a CLIL context. The findings show that teachers and students use response tokens to carry out different interactional functions such as dis/agreements, acknowledgements, responses to confirmation checks, and to yes/no questions. However, the findings also show that there are some interactional functions that are exclusive to students such as a response to other-initiated repair and a response to a request to display epistemic access to information. Others, exclusive to teachers, include giving positive/negative evaluation and allocating a next speaker's turn. These functions demonstrate the relationship between interaction and pedagogical focus (Seedhouse 2004) and confirm the teacher’s predetermined institutional role.

'Enthusiasm' is claimed to be one of the most important ingredients of effective teaching. It is assumed in the studies that enthusiasm is a well-defined behavioural state which can be recognized and reproduced. However, at closer inspection the term becomes elusive and several ions arise: Is enthusiasm a universally valid category or does it bear cultural and individual differentiation? And does it always lead to good teaching? If not, which aspects are central? This study was designed using a hybrid qualitative method which consisted of a mixture of three different methods: multiple-case studies, in-depth interviews and classroom observations.

This historical narrative provides the account of a professional life as a foreign language teacher and the personal development which is part of this process. Central to this thesis is the introduction of a series of language learning initiatives to address the challenges of teaching foreign languages in a middle school. The title of the research 'approaching the real' is based on the consideration that the target language and culture is absent from the classroom and that our efforts in teaching a language are focused on the need to represent an absent reality. As a 'translated' and adapted form of the target language there is a need therefore to 'approach the real' and drama, (through role-play and improvisation work) is seen as a mechanism for reducing the distance from the target language and culture. This thesis is also, however, about providing opportunities for pupils to 'experience the real' through participation in a French exchange. Here the pupil is transported into a different environment and routine and there are problems associated with culture shock' and the need to adjust to differences. Pupils are given a different perspective on what previously, they are likely to have taken for granted. Through a comparison of classroom foreign language learning with the exchange, it proves possible to develop a model for foreign language learning based on these experiences. The unpredictable, disorganised nature of real communication, where the cultural context of the situation is central, contrasts with the disciplined pattern of the classroom with the emphasis on language structure. While promoting the case for extending pupils' language opportunities, a case is also made for the use of new technologies to enable contact with someone from another culture.

This study aimed at developing a model that can facilitate the analysis of second language task-based interaction. The study used a combination of methods and technologies so that the model can enable a holistic analysis of task-based interaction. Task-based Language Teaching, multimodality, Conversation Analysis and the Tabletop technology made up the key components of the model. It is argued that the model can enable a holistic analysis of task-based interaction. The problem of analysing task-based interaction has been documented in the literature. Students' interaction in tasks is very fluid and dynamic. Previous research fails to capture in fine detail the intricacies and multimodal nature of task-based interaction. This is one reason why a holistic model is needed to portray the details of what happens in language classrooms. The study applies the model to data collected from a digital Tabletop environment. Analysis of the data shows how participants synchronise verbal and non-verbal resources using precise timing to accomplish the task. Multimodal analysis in this study can reveal the mutual interplay between verbal and non-verbal resources and how these resources are used to organise action. Analysing the data using the model also shows that participants develop unique speech exchange systems that involve a lot of non-verbal communication to accomplish tasks in the Tabletop environment. Furthermore, it is possible to apply the model to outline the main characteristics of task-based interaction. This study contributes to an emerging line of research which explores the interplay between interaction, multimodality, and technology in language classrooms. The model is a promising tool that could potentially allow researchers to unravel how learning precisely happens in task-based classrooms.

This work is based on nine articles, two book chapters and one set of conference proceedings published between 1998 and 2007 on independent language learning in universities. I also refer to papers I have published that are concerned exclusively with language learning and teaching in adult education in order to contextualise my research. The publications selected for this work chart my evolution as a researcher and teacher, moving from a conventional adult education setting to self-access in a new university and finally distance learning at the Open University, UK. At each stage of this educational journey, autonomy took on an increasingly significant role, with distance learning at the extreme end of the spectrum, a setting which required autonomy to be firmly embedded in theory and practice. The thesis is divided into two main parts: (1) autonomy (2) metacognition and affect, strategies and learner support. The narrative draws together these themes, and explores links between the constructs, and their interrelationships. Publications 1-5 focus on the concept of autonomy and the issues it raises for learners and teachers in both self access and distance learning settings. The first three articles investigate autonomy in self-access contexts. The fourth and fifth publications concentrate more specifically on the distance language learning context. These five articles and chapters examine definitions and interpretations of autonomy; its psychological and social dimensions; its relationship to critical reflection; its place in successful language learning; and its function as a key transferable skill for vocational and other purposes. Finally, the role of autonomy and its practical application – self-regulation or self-management – is discussed in specific relation to distance language learning. Publications 6-12 explore metacognition and affect in independent learning settings, the role of language learning strategies to promote self-regulation in the development of autonomy, and issues for learner support. In this section, the focus is mainly on distance language learning, (reflecting my move to the Open University, UK), although many of the arguments are equally applicable to independent language learning settings in general. The role of metacognition is discussed from the dual perspective of knowledge of self, and skills used to manage the learning process (Flavell, 1976). Affective factors, notably beliefs, anxiety and motivation, are explored in relation to the special characteristics of the distance language learning environment, in particular the call on affective resources in the absence of a teacher. This leads naturally to an examination of the strategies that distance learners employ to cope with the demands of their learning setting, and to implications for learner support. This work makes an important contribution to the field of distance language learning through its focus on the centrality of the learner, the processes involved in second language acquisition (SLA) at a distance, and the need to explore related concepts from the learner's perspective. The empirical studies I have carried out using both quantitative and qualitative research instruments take forward the state of current knowledge in the field by offering original insights into the perceptions, thoughts and feelings of distance language learners and the strategies they use to manage in a distance context. Underpinning my research is a view shared by a growing number of researchers in applied linguistics today that 'language learning, more than almost any other discipline, is an adventure of the whole person, not just a cognitive or metacognitive exercise' (Oxford & Burry-Stock, 1995: 18).