Mastering the English Article system is a long tern challenge for L2 learners. The difficulty originates from the fact that appropriate usage requires stacking multiple functions into limited forms, the numerous exceptions to the rules and the mismatch between the grammatical criteria of countability and number that determine the appropriate supply of the indefinite article and the lexical-pragmatic values on which definiteness depends. In addition, differences between the first and target languages can also cause problems even for advanced learners. We investigated the use of English articles in the production of Arab university students by collecting data from three different tests that varied in the degree of control and the type of knowledge they examine. Development was followed cross sectionally after dividing the participants into three proficiency level groups according to their scores on the Oxford Placement Test. Statistical analyses were performed to calculate the differences across groups, tasks and compare between learners' use of the two articles. The results were also compared to findings from other L2 studies to determine whether the development map corresponds to/differs from the tendencies of learners from other L1 backgrounds. It was found that Arabic influenced the participants' decisions to a large extent, especially at lower levels. In other respects error patterns paralleled those of other L2 learners. The definite article was mastered before the indefinite while the correct marking of non-referential bare nominals (zero article) seemed to be the most difficult aspect of article use to master. The results suggest that task type influenced learner's choices considerably. Finally, faulty associations between definiteness and linguistic notions of specificity. pre-modification and concreteness in learner hypotheses caused variability in L2 article production.

The main objective of the present study has been to investigate the English language proficiency of the Libyan children in Manchester, specifically, the factors that have influenced its development, factors such as age, length of residence, attitudes towards learning English, parental encouragement, participation in ESL classes and adjustment to the British school. It has also sought to examine the educational situation of the Libyan children including their preference for the current dual school situation or the establishment of a full-time Libyan school, as well as the educational and social problems that have occurred as a result of the dual school situation.

This thesis investigates the lack of critical reading and thinking skills amongst undergraduate students of English in Libya, and produces a new programme which can be used to develop their skills. It develops students' critical reading comprehension skills through an innovative Critical Reading Programme (CR Programme). It further examines students' perceptions of the programme with the intention of adapting and amending the original programme accordingly. It is intended that the completed work would be disseminated on a wider scale, beyond the particular institution where the study was undertaken, to the rest of Libya and possibly to other Arabic-speaking countries. The need was identified for a programme to enhance critical reading and thinking skills amongst undergraduate students of English at Sebha University in Libya. Therefore, an initial design of a CR Programme that would enable the students to achieve these skills was developed. Using the literature review to inform its development, I piloted the programme, using it within the appropriate context, and gathered data from the participants to see if it had served its purpose. From the results of the pilot study, I contacted a random sample of 60 students from Sebha University. The student sample was divided equally into two groups (control and research). Students in the research group studied the CR Programme which I initially developed, while the control group participants were not taught critical reading, but were taught reading comprehension using a teacher-centred approach and a grammar translation method, which is the current pedagogy in Libya. Relevant literature was reviewed so as to be aware of empirical studies carried out by others. This was to enable me to situate my own contribution to the field. For example, Thistlethwaite (1990) emphasises the importance of critical reading; Davis (1992) highlights a variety of learning and teaching methods; Yopp (2001) suggests a model for the process involved in reading comprehension; and Alyousef (2006) discusses the role of cognition and reading, as well as the methods used for teaching and learning. To answer the research questions and meet the aims of my study, qualitative and quantitative methods were adopted to analyse the collected data. The former method was important for understanding and appreciating the subjective aspect of the participants' issues and problems relevant to their learning English as a foreign language (EFL) and for gaining their trust. The latter was used to quantify the data collected. The methods were further used to measure the progress of the students on the Ck Programme, thus, verifying the programme's importance. The thesis explores pedagogical tools in teaching reading comprehension to EFL undergraduate students in Libya. The data collection and subsequent research findings show that using innovative pedagogy can improve reading comprehension skills in the Libyan context. The study was conducted in four phases, namely: 1) a pre-intervention strategy (pre-measurement of skills, and a questionnaire relating to students' prior perceptions); 2) a during-intervention strategy (the eR Programme); 3) a post-intervention strategy (post-measurement of skills, and questionnaire on students' later perceptions); and, 4) a teacher questionnaire designed to investigate teachers' views and knowledge of critical reading and thinking skills. The findings of the study recognise that critical reading and thinking skills are of utmost importance for EFL students and their teachers. They reveal that critical reading and thinking skills have close links to EFL students' competence in reading comprehension. The findings further suggest that the intervention study (Ck Programme) can help EFL students develop their reading comprehension abilities. Recommendations for further research are also made. The findings will be useful to teachers and EFL curriculum designers, particularly in their development of suitable learning and teaching resources for reading comprehension at the higher education level. No less importantly, the findings are expected to provide Libyan education policy makers with insights into perceptions and practices of teaching reading comprehension skills, so as to inform the future design of EFL reading materials and the structure of new EFL courses.

Reading is a process that requires much effort if students wish to comprehend the text. A large amount of research has been devoted to understanding the processes that contribute to reading comprehension. This research makes a significant contribution to knowledge by exploring the strategies used by Libyan TEFL university students while reading academic materials in class to achieve understanding. It also aims to contribute to knowledge by examining the relationship between level and gender and the use of reading strategies among university students. The study sampled 1st and 4th year male and female students from four Libyan universities. A combination of quantitative and qualitative research methods was utilised to collect data. A 48-item structured questionnaire was administered to 240 students and 12 focus group interviews were conducted with 72 students, in both cases equally balanced in terms of level and gender. SPSS software was utilized to analyse the questionnaire responses while grounded theory was applied to the interview data. Finally, the quantitative and qualitative findings were integrated to provide meaningful conclusions. The quantitative findings revealed different patterns of pre-reading, while-reading and post-reading strategies used by the participants. Some unexpected findings included that, interaction strategies were the least frequently used despite the fact that opportunities to practise the target language outside class were very rare. The qualitative data also provided a number of interesting findings, such as that preparing for the reading task in advance to build up sufficient background and consequently be more confident and relaxed in class, thus revealing a relationship between affective factors and strategy use. Furthermore, the results showed that learners' level had a significant influence on strategy use. 4th year students exhibited superior use of 7 out of 11 strategy types. The qualitative findings supported these conclusions, as even in cases of similar patterns, 4th year students showed more maturity and awareness of strategy use. Statistically significant differences were found favouring female students in the use of most strategies. According to the qualitative findings, female students also reported using more planning and preparing strategies, comprehension strategies, problem- solving strategies and social and supporting strategies. On the other hand, male students reported more use of interpretation strategies. Irrespective of the frequency of use, however, male and female participants expressed different attitudes as to how and why they used various strategies. The findings of the current study draw attention to the influence of other factors such as educational level, class size, and gender balance in class on strategy use, and further studies are needed to explore these issues in more detail and in different contexts. Additionally, the research findings provide empirical information that can be utilized in improving pedagogy in countries where English is taught as a foreign or second language.

In this research, I investigate the role of Arabic in the classes of English as a Foreign Language (EFL), by exploring the uses of Arabic during classroom activities that teachers and students engage in. I also look into how such role shapes the attitudes of the stakeholders in the institution where the research took place. While the literature reveals that the use of the learner's first language (L 1) in foreign language (L2) classrooms can be beneficial and sometimes even necessary for the teaching- learning process, the role of Arabic as the students' first language (L 1) in EFL classes, although it is a controversial issue, has not been properly researched. This scarcity of research calls for comprehensive and in-depth studies to contribute to the understanding of the phenomenon and to help in filling the existing knowledge gap. I undertook the present research as an endeavour and contribution toward such ambition. For the purposes of this study, I employed a mixed methods approach to tackle the issue from a broader perspective. Thus I have used questionnaires, semi-structured interviews and class observations. In addition, I have made use of the principles of Activity Theory (AT) as a conceptual framework to help interpret the findings of the research in a rigorous and systematic manner. This theoretical background has provided a suitable lens to analyse human behaviours as complex as the ones found in EFL classrooms. AT also has helped in identifying three main roles that Arabic plays in the EFL classes. The results suggest that Arabic is useful, and sometimes even necessary, in EFL classes as it serves as a pedagogical tool that mediates the teaching-learning activity! and as an educational scaffold that facilitates the students' learning expansion. Furthermore, Arabic has been found to be the source of contradictions within and between the components and participants of the EFL teaching- learning activity. Additionally, data analysis has revealed that the participating EFL teachers have displayed levels of confidence by adopting an eclectic approach to EFL teaching and through assuming ownership of their teaching in a stance that is characteristic of the post method era. It is anticipated that these findings will help to raise the awareness towards the role of Arabic in EFL classes, inform the revision of the EFL pedagogic policy, and pave the way for more research endeavours on the topic. Such initiatives will enlighten the development of an alternative, appropriate and efficient local pedagogy that is suitable for EFL preparatory English programs in Saudi colleges and universities. The findings also appear to be of Significant value for EFL teachers' professional development programs and suggest a rethinking of the training and recruitment of EFL teachers for this part of the world.

The aim of this study is to explore the effect of teaching explicitly thematic structure and generic structure on EFL students’ writing quality and motivation towards learning and writing in English. For this, I conducted a 14-week quasi-experiment in a university in Bahrain during the first semester of 2011-2012. I drew on a mixed methods research approach. The quantitative data involved writing tests and questionnaires and the qualitative data semi-structured interviews. I used four groups: three experimental groups and one control group. The former were given three different treatments: thematic structure (TS), generic structure (GS), and a combination of thematic and generic groups (TGS). I administered pre-, mid-, and post-tests to all groups, marked the writing scripts holistically and analytically, and calculated the marks statistically using SPSS. The findings revealed significant differences between the three experimental and control groups but no differences among the three experimental groups. The students in the latter groups wrote more coherent and cohesive texts as a result of the interventions. This led to an in-depth analysis of 45 scripts of the post-test for the three groups to assess hidden differences. The findings revealed differences between the TGS and TS groups and the GS group in two thematic progression patterns. The overall findings suggest that teaching TS and GS helped to improve students’ writing quality in terms of coherence but in terms of cohesion the teaching of TS helped the students more. I used questionnaires and semi-structured interviews before and after the intervention. The questionnaires involved all groups and the interviews only the three experimental groups. The findings showed that the motivation and attitudes of the three experimental groups were enhanced towards learning and writing in English. This improvement was measured in terms of a number of motivational constructs related to the field of motivation in L2. These included forming positive attitudes, enhanced self-efficacy, increased self-esteem and confidence, decreased learning anxiety, higher learning autonomy, improved ideal L2 self, willingness to communicate, and greater awareness of learning goals and factors that might influence their writing.

Research on vocabulary learning strategies (VLSs) has seen a rise in recent years as a new lane of enquiry within the body of L2 vocabulary research. However, very little attention has been given to researching particular strategies and almost none to the strategy of vocabulary note-taking. The present study investigates the use of the vocabulary note-taking strategy (VNS) by university EFL learners in Saudi Arabia. In particular, it looks into the frequency of learners' use of various note-taking micro strategies as well as the learners' strategic behavior in using these micro strategies over time. It also examines the relationship between three learners' variables, namely, vocabulary proficiency level (VPL), vocabulary achievement level (V AL) and university year of study (Y) with their use of the various note- taking micro strategies. Lastly, the study examines whether learners used any note-taking micro strategies in combination rather than independently. The participants were 55 English majors enrolled in a four-year English program in Jeddah Teachers College at King Abdul- Aziz University, Saudi Arabia. In order to triangulate the sources of the study data, a mixed method approach for data collection was used. Whereas strategy data were collected through a questionnaire, structured interviews and some sample learners' notes, vocabulary levels were measured via the Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT) and a vocabulary achievement test. Also, a separate questionnaire was used to gather the relevant participants' background information. Data analysis procedures included mean frequency ratings, Friedman test, Wilcoxon Signed Ranks test, Paired Samples t test, Independent Samples t test, Pearson r correlation and Factor Analysis. The results showed that whereas taking words from textbooks, selecting new words and recording L1 translation were the most common note- taking micro strategies among our subjects, recording notes in audio tapes and on cards, organizing words alphabetically and recording pronunciation and collocations were the least common ones. Also, subjects generally remained consistent in terms of their strategic behavior in using the various note-taking micro strategies over time but nevertheless a few changes occurred. Some relationships were found between the subjects' vocabulary proficiency/achievement level (VPL/VAL) ana their use of' some of ,the note-taking micro -t . " . ~ . • , l strategies. However, whether the use, of these micro strategies contributed to the learners' VPL/VAL rather than the other way' around still needs to be investigated. As such, further research in regards to the effect of using particular note-taking micro strategies on note- takers' vocabulary level needs to be carried out in the future in order to ascertain the particular note-taking micro strategies that are most effective for L2 learning. The results also showed that learners' year of study (Y) contributed to their frequency of using some of the note-taking micro strategies. Finally, some micro strategies were found to be used in combinations with others. Limitations, suggestions for further research as well as' implications emerging from the study were provided.

The learner's first language (L1) plays a significant role in the learning of a second language (12). This role is depicted as interfering with acquisition and production of (L2). The notion of interference has emerged as a legitimate area of linguistic investigation (Lado, 1957; Selinker, 1972;James, 1980). This study explores and assesses the Arab learners' performance in using English spatial prepositions. It focuses on the role of the Arab learners' first language in learning English, particularly spatial prepositions, as a second/ foreign language. The data of this study consists of the results of five tests which are designed firstly: to examine the learners' performances in acquiring certain English prepositions, which are considered to be among the most difficult items for Arab learners of English (AI-Sayed, 1983; Mukattash, 1985; Zughoul, 1979); and secondly to assess the degree of interference from Arabic in learning English spatial prepositions, the main objective of this study. Three statistical techniques were employed in analysing the data: The ANOVA test, regression analysis and chi-square test These procedures were used to examine performance of the learners over the years, possible sources of errors, and the interchangeability of English spatial prepositions in the responses to tests. The results of this study confirm that a high percentage (48%) of errors committed in the use of English spatial prepositions by Arab learners of English can be attributed to the influence exerted by their first language (Arabic). These findings support the claims of Tadros (1966), Scott and Tucker (1974) and Mukattash (1988).

This observational study examines classroom instruction in the Basic English Program (BEP) in three Industrial Training Centres in Saudi Aramco, the largest oil producing and marketing company in Saudi Arabia. The researcher has been professionally involved in English language instruction in Saudi Aramco for more than 25 years, and the study emerges from the assumption that the BEP does not provide enough opportunities for learners to build up a communicative competence that helps them to use language for real communication. The subjects in the study ware Saudi high school graduates with little background in English. Successful completion of the BEP program is a pre-requisite for their technical training in Saudi Aramco.;The study sets out to explore the types of L2 learning activities, the teaching methods and strategies the teachers employ, as well as the learners' roles in the class and the organizational policies which control the Basic English Program. The data were collected through direct observation of thirty lessons using one part of the Communicative Orientation of Language Teaching (COLT) Observation Scheme. In addition, audio-recordings of several observed lessons were also made.;The analysis of the data from the COLT Scheme, and the transcribed lesson extracts reveal that the Saudi Aramco Basic English Program does not provide the learners with sufficient and appropriate practice opportunities and this is one reason why there is a lack of competence in the use of English in real communication.;The study concludes that classroom instruction in the Basic English Program limits the students' chances for spontaneous use of language and hence their ability to communicate in real situations. Among the recommendations made are that changes need to be introduced by the syllabus and teaching methods in order that learners are provided with the necessary language skills to enable them to use English to communicate inside and outside the classroom.

Expression of temporality in English through the use of finite verbs is challenging for LI Arabic learners of English. Non-target language forms have been recorded in the interlanguage of Arabic speaking Emirati students in a third level college system in the UAE. Analysis of the errors suggests that there may be systematicity in these non-TL forms. Two factors are considered in the study as possible influences on the learners' choices of verb forms. The first considers verb type, looking at how the lexical aspect of verb types affects verb form. The second factor considers the possibility of transfer from the Arabic tense/ aspect system and examines how the function of morphological forms in Arabic may affect choice of form in English. Two research instruments in the form of English grammar and Arabic translation tasks were designed to acquire data on English morphological forms selected by learners for both verb types and functions. In addition, the normal tasks required of learners i.e. free composition writing provided a source of verbs which were analysed for learner verb type, function and form associations. Learners at five language levels participated in the research. Data were analysed for rates of accuracy in the most common verb forms found in learner output and measured against expectations set by the grammar component of writing band descriptors used to assess student writing. All observed morphological choices for verb type and function were recorded, categorized and measured against the two selected hypotheses. Results indicate the relevance of certain features of both hypotheses and highlight the importance of taking dimensions other than form into consideration when considering verb use in learners' interlanguage.