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This experimental study addresses one of the least explored audiovisual modes: reverse subtitling (L1 audio, L2 subtitles). Specifically, it investigates the effects of different translational choices on learners’ noticing and memorisation of lexical items and grammatical structures. The participants were English (L1) native speakers learning Italian (L2) at an upper-intermediate level (CEFR B2). Formal similarity (literal transfer) and discrepancy (non-literal transfer) between L1 and L2 were compared to establish if and how they affect the learners during subtitle processing and recall. Does one of the two translation conditions yield a better recall rate in a verbatim memory post-test? This constitutes the main research question addressed in this study. The main hypothesis was that there would be a difference in recall by translation condition, with formal equivalence having a facilitative effect on memory and literal subtitles therefore being more accurately recalled by learners. To determine how the different subtitle translations were processed, attention allocation and noticing were investigated through triangulation of eye-tracking, the recall post-test and an open questionnaire, which allowed the subjects’ thought processes to also be recorded. Subtitle-specific variables such as corpus frequency and linguistic category (lexicon vs. syntax) were also analysed. While participants watched the reversely subtitled clip, their eye behaviour was recorded using a Tobii X120 eye-tracker. After watching, participants answered the recall post-test followed by the open questionnaire and took part in a working memory control test. Translation condition was found to influence recall, with literal translations yielding superior recall performance than non-literal ones. The data also showed that participants did notice a translation discrepancy. Eye-tracking findings reveal a complex relationship between language elaboration and memory, whereby comparable amounts of visual attention to two subtitle versions can result in significantly different recall. Moreover, considerable insights were drawn from the open questionnaire, indicating that qualitative data can provide a richer picture of processing and memory attainment and should more regularly support experimental studies. The results demonstrate that subtitle-specific factors like translation can indeed influence the viewer and should therefore be taken into consideration in the design of future subtitle reception studies. The mnemonic potential of reverse subtitles for foreign language learning is also confirmed, strongly suggesting that this subtitling mode should be reconsidered as a valuable tool in language learning and deserves a place in the foreign language classroom. Future research could build on this study by using a larger sample size and more advanced statistical techniques, such as multilevel modelling. The results obtained highlight the complexity of the language faculty and call for additional reception studies where more fine-grained analyses further assess the effects of translation during the consumption of subtitled material. For instance, using a higher-frequency eye-tracker and considering more eye movement measures in the future will provide more precise insights in the reading process, enabling deeper understanding of information processing and memory retention, both crucial aspects in the development of foreign language skills.

This study investigates the impact of two modes of input (oral and written) and of task repetition on L2 narrative speech production. It specifically explores (l) the impact of the two modes of input on L2 oral narrative production, (2) the impact of repetition of a task on L2 oral narrative production, (3) the interaction of mode and task repetition, (4) the impact of learners' vocabulary knowledge on L2 oral narrative production, and (5) learners' reflections on their awareness of the change in their task performance. Twenty-four Japanese under graduates participated in the study. The cohort was divided into two groups (an oral input group and a written input group) utilising a 3,000 word vocabulary test (Nation, 2001). In Week 1, each group received their respective input and performed the same narrative retelling tasks. In Week 2, the tasks were repeated, and retrospective interviews were conducted with 12 students (6 from each group) in their Ll. Narrative speech production was analysed in terms of fluency, complexity and accuracy, and the interviews were analysed qualitatively. The results of the study revealed that the Oral Input group produced more syllables per minute than the Written Input group, and task repetition had an impact on fluency and accuracy. The findings consistently revealed that vocabulary level was associated with syntactic complexity and accuracy measures. The analysis of the interview data complemented the quantitative analysis, showing differences in perceptions of the input modes and task conditions between the two groups. Both groups tended to be aware of gains in comprehension which helped them to produce more speech. The study identifies some pedagogical implications, including for the practical use of input mode and repetition in classrooms. Key words: L2 speech production, modality, task repetition, learners' perceptions, vocabulary

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This is a longitudinal study, investigating the impact of audio-visual media on English acquisition and learning in the Chinese context. In China, there are several issues in L2 English language education. The quantity and the quality of English language input are less than ideal. Furthermore, L2 English learner motivation is undependable. Since language input and motivation is important in L2 acquisition and learning, it is relevant to find an alternative input which contains authentic native English to facilitate and motivate Chinese-speaking learners' English acquisition and learning. Audio-visual media has the potential of becoming the alternative source of input on account of being a provider of rich authentic English language input and motivation stimuli. The impact of audio-visual media was tested in two distinct aspects, namely acquisition and learning. English genericity, and vocabulary meaning and form mapping were employed as test properties to examine to what extent audio-visual media can influence acquisition and learning respectively. A total of 52 Chinese university students participated in this one-year-long intervention experiment. The television series stimuli Doctor Who was only given to the experimental group during the input period. Motivation was a variable to allocate students in flexible groups for analysis after the immediate post-test. By conducting statistical tests, the results revealed that audio-visual media had a weak impact on English acquisition of genericity. The motivation variable was not influential in acquisition. In L2 English learning of vocabulary meaning and form mapping, audio-visual media had a strong and long-lasting impact in the self-learning setting. The motivation variable was positively influential in learning. When the vocabulary was applied to new contexts, the effect of audio-visual media and the motivation variable was not sustained. Based on these results, the Motivational Input Carrier Hypothesis is proposed to contribute to L2 research.

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This study investigated how EFL learners managed their real time interaction in a computer-mediated communication (CMC) environment called Schmooze University MOO. Fourteen undergraduates enrolled at two universities in Tokyo took part in weekly text chat sessions over a semester. Four task types were implemented; information-gap, jigsaw, decision-making and opinion-exchange. Qualitative data such as transcripts, field notes and questionnaires were analyzed within the framework of a case study. Findings indicated that the subjects actively managed their interaction, monitored their linguistic output, supported each other and exercised autonomy. Analysis of the transcripts revealed that the subjects consistently produced coherent target language output focused on the tasks, while at the same time, overcoming the challenge of communicating effectively in a new online environment. They achieved this considerable feat in part, by utilizing features of the environment designed to facilitate interaction. Moreover, they utilized a mix of transactional and interactional discourse management strategies that have been identified in the literature on native speaker interaction in real time CMC. Transactional strategies identified in the data were addressivity, time saving and feedback. Interactional strategies were the use of pseudonyms, positive and negative politeness, greetings, leave-takings and off-task discussion. These strategies enabled the subjects to track turns, provide feedback and build the social cohesion necessary for sustained communication in online environments. The analysis showed that as the project progressed, the subjects utilized a greater number and wider range of strategies than in the earlier sessions. The majority of these appeared the result of transfer from conventional forms of communication. However, others were adaptive and appropriate to the online nature of the interaction. These strategies that have not been reported in the literature on learner-learner interaction in CMC, were use of the to command, split turns, suspension dots, quotation and omission. The appearance of these medium induced strategies highlights the subjectsʼ increasingly sophisticated and successful attempts to deal with real time computer-based nature of the interaction. Analysis of the data further revealed that when communication problems arose the subjects overcome them by utilizing communication strategies involved in negotiation of meaning. The most frequent strategies identified in the data were definition and clarification requests followed by self-, other-initiated correction and non-response. The subjects also made limited use of confirmation and comprehension checks. These strategies were more frequent in the jigsaw tasks than in the other task types. The data showed that learner-learner negotiation in this type of CMC broadly follows the model proposed for face-to-face interaction in conventional classrooms. However, analysis indicated that the interplay of proficiency levels, task, the computer-based nature of the interaction and sociocultural concerns appeared to influence the frequency of negotiation.

This thesis investigates the construct of productive vocabulary knowledge with a productive vocabulary task, Lex30. The task is designed to elicit up to four vocabulary items in response to each of 30 cues. In this way, Lex30 generates a corpus for each subject up to 120 words, which is then categorised according to frequency bands. The test is scored according to the number, or proportion, of infrequent words elicited, with infrequent defined as all items excluding the most frequently occurring 1000 English words. The higher the Lex30 score, then, the more infrequent words that subject has produced in response to the cues. Each corpus generated by Lex30, therefore, offers information about subjects' relative knowledge of infrequent items, although this might only be threshold knowledge. A feature of Lex30 is that it appears to measure productive vocabulary knowledge discretely: it does not activate multiple aspects of language knowledge, and is not context engaging. This feature suggests that we can measure one of the many aspects that are commonly considered to constitute language knowledge, productive vocabulary knowledge, without interference from other aspects of language knowledge. Additionally, Lex30 offers the potential to hypothesize about subjects' relative L2 proficiency in terms of the proportion of infrequent items they provide. To investigate the construct of productive vocabulary with Lex30, this thesis examines, in a principled way, exactly what aspect of language competence it measures, and makes comparisons with other cognate tests. The test has been used in a number of contexts since its introduction; this thesis offers a thorough investigation of its reliability, different versions of the scoring system, the influence cue frequency and of specific cue items, and the mode of task delivery and response. The thesis concludes that Lex30 provides us with a helpful means to understand the construct of productive vocabulary knowledge.

The use of communication strategies (CSs) has been of interest on research into second language acquisition (SLA) since it can help learners to attain mutual comprehension effectively and develops understanding of interaction in SLA research. This study investigates and clarifies a wide range of CSs that learners of English and learners of Chinese use to solve language problems as well as to facilitate problem-free discourse in both text-based and video-based SCMC environments. Seven Chinese-speaking learners of English and seven English-speaking learners of Chinese were paired up as tandem (reciprocal) learning dyads in this study. Each dyad participated in four interactions, namely, text-based SCMC in English, text-based SCMC in Chinese, video-based SCMC in English and video-based SCMC in Chinese. The interaction data were analysed along with an after-task questionnaire and stimulated reflection to explore systematically and comprehensively the differences between text-based and video-based SCMC and differences between learners of English and learners of Chinese. The results showed that learners used CSs differently in text-based and video-based SCMC compared with their own performance and indicated different learning opportunities provided by these two modes of SCMC. Although the difference in language was less salient than the medium effect, learners of English and learners of Chinese tended to have their own preferences for particular CSs. When these preferences appear to reflect an appropriate communicative style in one particular culture, learners might need to raise their awareness of some strategies during intercultural communication to avoid possible misunderstanding or offence. Some possible advantages of tandem learning interaction were also identified in this study, such as the potential to develop sociocultural and intercultural competence due to the opportunity to practice culturally appropriate language use with native speakers in a social context.