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The commitment to improving scientific literacy is voiced by governments throughout the world. One of the main objectives is the development of an informed and active citizenry able to participate in decision-making processes concerning socio-scientific issues (SSIs). There is a growing literature which suggests that engaging with the complexity of SSIs demands a high level of critical-thinking skills. These skills include: open-mindedness, independence, and scepticism. This three-year long study attempted to develop an intervention which will, in particular, provide subjects with an ability to be more open-minded, evaluate counter opinions, and respect those holding such opinions. The importance of developing an ability to value the ‘other' emerged from years of teaching academic English within an Israeli university, where initiating fruitful classroom discussion was problematic. The lack of dialogue resulted from individuals voicing strongly held opinions and seeming to be unable to acknowledge, and evaluate opposing views. This project was designed as an action research study. Both quantitative and qualitative data was collected, and analysed within an interpretive framework. As both the researcher and researched, many of my teaching methods were modified during the course of this study, including the introduction of pair-work in class. The study was conducted in three cycles over three consecutive years, primarily with two classes (one humanities and one science) in the pre-academic, mechina, program of an Israeli university. The mechina is a year-long programme and the students I taught had a single semester of English. This meant that three different cohorts of students were studied, (there were always 25-30 students in each class, so about 50 students were studied each year). The classes I taught were proficient in English, and were required to do a research project as part of the course. This project became my intervention. I developed a project based on devil's advocate which required them to choose an SSI that interested them, write a statement of their opinion, and then, much to their astonishment, find evidence to support the counter opinion. I gave a lesson on how to evaluate sources available on the internet. Although the project was set up as a standard research exercise, which is what they expected, the majority of students identified that this project made them more aware of the value of counter opinions – more ‘open-minded'. The primary method for collecting feedback on the project, and on other aspects of my course, utilized a projective technique – students wrote their views anonymously on a piece of paper; these are then analysed by coding the responses. This study also employed questionnaires, which were given to all students. These showed that the majority had little or no science education in high school, and yet registered high levels of interest in science and technology on a three-level Likert item. These findings add support to research that shows the more science studied in high school the lower the interest in the subject. Furthermore, by including a standard VOSTS (Views On Science-Technology-Society) I was able to show that my students believed the general public should participate in governmental decisions relating to SSIs. Responses to open-ended questions showed that most students, including those in the humanities, believed everyone should take science courses at university, and should have science classes in school (though not the current curriculum). In conclusion, this research indicated that interest in science was not related to studying the current school science curriculum. And feedback from the intervention demonstrated that students could be aware of a change in their cognitive skills, and independently acknowledge the importance of being open-minded – an important step towards promoting an active, informed, scientifically literate society.

There is strong evidence in literature that formative assessment (FA) promotes learning, has a positive impact on teacher development and improves pupil outcomes. It nevertheless remains at the periphery of practice in schools in England. This study investigates why this is so, through an observational study of classroom practice in science in Year 8 (ages 12-13) in three secondary schools in an outer London local authority. The study is set in the context of tensions and anxiety in schools emanating from the government’s ‘standards agenda’, namely, the imposition of National Tests, targets, league tables of results and inspections by the Office for Standards in Education (Ofsted). Through lesson observations, scrutiny of pupils’ books, interviews with teachers and pupils and discussions with school, local, and national managers, this study confirms the dominance of tests and examinations. It confirms too the practice of ‘triage’ for rationing education and discovers the existence of the ‘tripartite’ system and the ‘factory-model’ of schooling within the walls of comprehensive schools. All of these mitigate against the effective use of FA to promote learning in the classroom. The findings include teachers’ lack of subject knowledge, an acute shortage of physics teachers and the disabling of teachers’ agency through ‘double triage’- leading to demoralisation. The government and school managers continue to use blunt instruments for monitoring narrowly defined ‘standards’ whilst the professional learning of science teachers is neglected. Schools are ‘marking up’ or even ‘making up’ test and coursework results through dishonest practices, masking the fact that they are failing many of their pupils. Finally, Bhaskar’s theory of learning drawn from his theory of creativity and his notion of ‘unfolding the enfolded’ are counter-posed against the theory of innate ability and used to propose a new, improved theory of assessment. This theory is Enabling Assessment, which builds on formative assessment and assessment for learning and provides a model of assessment with transformative potential.

International test results posed concerns about the future of science education in Canada, the UK, and the USA. Stakeholders such as Let's Talk Science and AMGEN Canada and The Royal Society, UK observed that fewer students were pursuing post-secondary studies and careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) related fields in their countries, compared to their counterparts in China, India and Singapore. These stakeholders contended that science teachers required the agency to enhance their classroom efficacy and to challenge their students to pursue post-secondary studies and careers in STEM related fields. Reform initiatives, including professional development programmes, have been established across western countries to support science teachers' agency to act as change agents. This study was based on two assumptions; first, science teachers need professional development, experiences to shape their professional identity to act as change agents in science education reform, and secondly, science teachers' professional identity may be influenced and reshaped through experiences during professional development. This research explored the influence on secondary school science teachers' professional identity by their experiences of professional development programmes. A methodological approach of hermeneutic phenomenology facilitated the understanding of science teachers' experiences, while a sociocultural theoretical framework based on Wenger's community of practice, underpinned the research. Narrative interviews, semi-structured interviews, and a questionnaire provided evidence from thirteen purposefully selected science teachers in one school board in Canada for this study. Interpretive phenomenological analysis of interviews and qualitative survey analysis of the questionnaire, identified cognitive development, social interactions, emotional changes, and change in beliefs and classroom practice as the science teacher's experiences of their professional development programme. Such experiences are regarded as indicators of influence on professional identity. The cognitive development, social interactions, and emotional changes experienced by the science teachers, are considered as their dimensions of experiences during learning. Although nine science teachers experienced change in their practice, two of the reported change sin their professional beliefs. It is significant that eleven science teachers did not experience a change in their beliefs, despite changes in their classroom practice. The science teachers who did not experience a change in their beliefs were confident of their existing professional identities that influenced their learning and their views regarding changes in their beliefs and practice. It appears that science teachers' prior professional identity was a determining factor in influencing and reshaping their professional identities. Nevertheless, findings from this study imply that, to some extent, science teachers' professional identity was influenced, perhaps not reshaped, by their experiences of their professional development programme. Findings fro my research have implications for science education reform-minded stakeholders and providers of in-service professional development programmes. They would be informed of research on the role of professional identity in professional learning and classroom practice in a climate of science education reform, as well as the role of prior professional identity in such initiatives.

This thesis explores the impact of an inquiry-based learning programme on students’ self-reported levels of self-regulated processes and related motivations in the science classroom. Appreciating the interest seen in developing self-regulated learning and motivation in young students (Gläser-Zikuda & Järvelä, 2008; Zimmerman, 2002) and considering current discussions regarding the way science is taught around the globe (Kalman, 2010, Leou, Abder, Riordan, & Zoller, 2006), it was deemed important to explore the development of these constructs in young science students through participation in a curriculum initiative currently being implemented across the UK - the CREativity in Science and Technology (CREST) programme. The three studies included in this thesis followed a longitudinal quasi-experimental design using a naturalistic setting. After placing the research within a theoretical framework (Chapters 1 & 2) and describing the pilot work and methodology for the three investigations (Chapter 3), Study 1 (presented in Chapter 4) explored the impact of the CREST programme on developing self-regulated processes and related motivations in young students (n=34) compared to a control group of students from the same school (n=39). The findings indicated that students participating in the programme experienced significant increases in their self-reported levels of self-regulated learning and career motivation in comparison to the control group of students and that these developments were retained six months following programme completion. The results also demonstrated the potential for the CREST programme to reduce the decreasing trends relating to self-determination and intrinsic motivation found in the control group and reported in the wider literature in the field. Study 2 (presented in Chapter 5) built on the methodology of Study 1 and investigated class differences in response to the CREST programme. Study 2 aimed firstly to replicate the findings from Study 1 regarding group differences in self-reported levels from pre-test to post-test on the measured variables. While a reference control class (n=18) showed no significant changes from pre-test to post-test, on average, students taking part in the CREST programme showed significant increases in self-regulated learning, self-determination, self-efficacy, intrinsic motivation, and overall science motivation. However, due to the lack of an appropriate control group of equal size (n=160), conclusions were drawn cautiously. Another aim of this second study was to gain an understanding of whether individual classes of students experienced the programme differently and identify classroom dynamics that might predict the degree of benefit students obtain. The findings showed no class differences in response to the CREST programme relating to the self-regulated processes and related motivational constructs measured, and highlighted the sensitivity of the analyses used in classroom effects research. Study 3 (presented in Chapter 6) followed a similar quasi-experimental design (n=188) to Studies 1 and 2, with the addition of another intervention condition of students who had participated in CREST the year before the study was conducted. This, more, rigorous methodological design allowed for longer-term retention effects to be investigated. The results from this study highlighted the immediate and three-month delayed impact of the CREST programme on increasing self-reported for this sample of students. However, retention at the nine-month delayed post-test was not observed, suggesting that strategies need to be in place in order to maintain any developments through CREST programme participation. Teacher ratings of students’ self-regulated learning were also measured and did not align with the students’ self-reported results, highlighting the difficulty for teachers to identify and quantify internal processes like self-regulation among their students. While extensive research has been conducted on self-regulated processes and related motivations in students of all ages, the need for an increased understanding in natural classroom settings through implementing more rigorous research designs in specific learning contexts has been identified. Bringing the findings together, the three studies included in this thesis illustrate the beneficial impact of CREST programme participation on self-regulated processes and related motivations in young science students. The series of intervention studies presented provides a distinct contribution to research, demonstrating that these constructs can be developed in natural classroom settings by promoting an environment that encourages students to be more self-regulated and motivated in their science learning.

The 2007 revised mathematics curriculum in Ghana introduced many changes to the way mathematics should be taught and learned. However, before this research started in 2010, very little was known about how this subject is taught and learned. This study aims to investigate mathematics teachers’ teaching practices and students’ learning experiences in junior high schools (12-14 years) using a mixed methods design. The study’s conceptual framework is informed by two different, but interrelated theories: behaviourism and constructivism. Participants in the study were 24 mathematics teachers and 358 students from 12 schools. Semistructured questionnaires were used to collect quantitative data about participants’ perceptions, and classroom observations and interviews were used to collect qualitative data about actual classroom practices. The quantitative data was analysed using SPSS, STATSDIRECT and ORIGIN software and the qualitative data assessed using a thematic analysis approach. The key findings include: teachers and students espoused the belief that their teaching and learning practices are consistent with the principles and guidelines of the new mathematics curriculum. Teachers perceived teaching practices were complex as they contain both behaviourist and constructivist beliefs; however, their actual teaching practices were didactic. It also emerged that both teachers and students try to avoid making mistakes, despite the importance of correcting students’ misconceptions when promoting effective teaching and learning. The fact that peer influence is a key factor that shapes students’ learning was an important theme that emerged from the interview and the classroom observations. Students were only willing to participate in class discussions if they knew the correct answer, as they would be ridiculed by their peers for giving a wrong answer. The movement towards a more constructivist approach to teaching and learning, which is the prime objective of the new mathematics curriculum, occurred at a slower pace. Thus, a conceptual model for the teaching and learning of mathematics which advocates collaboration and partnership between teachers and students in the classroom is offered.

This study explores how experienced science teachers promote conceptual change. It examines how instructional strategies, learning methods (Darden, 1991) and conceptual change interrelate. Three research methods (expert micro-teaching, verbal protocols and retrospective debriefing) were used. Data were video-recorded and managed using NVivo. Six groups of 11 year-old pupils took part (three girls and three boys) in each expert micro-teaching interview, led by a science specialist (Advanced Skills Teacher). A ‘Concurrent Verbal Protocol and Retrospective Debriefing’ interview (Taylor and Dionne, 2000) happened with the teacher approximately one month later. Six teachers participated altogether. About fifteen hours of interview data were analysed using grounded theory methods. The interpretivist theoretical perspective (symbolic interactionism) was underpinned by a social constructionist epistemology. What can be considered evidence is inevitably affected by the researcher’s methodological position. So what constitutes reliable evidence can be contentious. Appropriate criteria for evaluating the grounded theory emerging from this study were used. Interpretivist approaches for investigating conceptual change in school science are necessary to avoid dominance by positivist literature. This approach, proved successful in other fields (Pressley, 2000), is new to this context. The assumption that instructional strategy is a plan does not adequately explain the data collected here. However, abandoning attempts to unpick complicated interactions between pupils and teacher whilst learning takes place, leaves practitioners without guidance. Consensus exists among most conceptual change researchers that instructional strategies, learning methods and conceptual change must be considered together where possible. This present study proposes a grounded theory for how experienced science teachers promote conceptual change and questions how instructional strategy is understood in the literature. Findings show that during and between sporadic periods of ‘conceptual conflict’ participants used eleven ‘teaching and learning techniques’. The relative weight given to each technique was termed the ‘strategic profile’ of the teacher. ‘Tactics’ is the theory of the use of teaching and learning techniques in conceptual combat. ‘Strategy’ is the theory of the use of such conceptual combats to try to achieve an aim (here to promote conceptual change). Teachers (and pupils) demonstrated and described tactical and strategic behaviour. Techniques, tactics and strategies frequently failed. How participants managed such ‘friction’ was described. Teachers and researchers view classroom dynamics from different perspectives. This study argues that an interpretivist approach, which moves back and forth between the particular and the general, can help bridge the “gap” between practice and theory in this field (Duit et al., 2008, p.629).

In this research, I investigated the extent to which language versions (English, French and Arabic) of the same science test were comparable in terms of item difficulty and demands. I used PISA science 2006 data from three countries (respectively, UK, France and Jordan). I argued that language was an intrinsic part of the scientific literacy construct, be it intended or not by the examiner. The tight relationship between the language element and the scientific knowledge makes the language variable inextricable from the construct. This argument has considerable implications on methodologies used to address this question. I also argued that none of the available statistical or qualitative techniques were capable of teasing out the language variable and answering the research question. In this thesis, I adopted a critical evaluation and empirical methods, using literature from various fields (cognitive linguistics, psychology, measurement and science education) to analyse the test development and design procedures. In addition, I illustrated my claims with evidence from the technical reports and examples of released items. I adopted the same class of models employed in PISA, the Rasch model, as well as differential item functioning (DIF) techniques to address my question empirically. General tests of fit suggested an overall good fit of the data to the model with eleven items out of 103 showing strong evidence of misfit. Various violations to the requirements of the Rasch model were highlighted. The DIF analysis indicated that 22% of the items showed bias in the selected countries, but bias balanced out at test level. Limitations of the DIF analysis to identify the source of bias were discussed. Qualitative approaches to investigating question demands were examined and issues with their usefulness in international settings were discussed. A way forward incorporating cognitive load theory and computational linguistics is proposed.

This study is an analysis of a three-phase study with twelve professional scientists and non-scientists (Phase One), one-hundred and twenty-three science and non-science university students (Phase Two) and thirty secondary school girls (Phase Three), to illustrate their ‘science lives’. I have used identity theories and transformational learning theory (TLT) to illustrate transformation or movement of learners towards, or away from, science. The understanding of these models and theories have led me to design a theoretical model of science identity (Sci-ID) that represents the global forces (GF) experienced by learners, the social agencies and agents (SA) that embody those forces, the transformational learning (TL) experiences (events, triggers and interventions) that shape personal meaning, and the inclinations and individual internal agency (IIA) that impact upon individuals’ subject and career choices. I have adopted semi-structured ‘narrative’ styled interviews, a descriptive questionnaire and science ‘intervention evaluation’ approaches from the three cohorts. The data generated has been analysed in several ways, including the use of synoptic analysis to construct individual stories about the participants, in third-person voice, from their responses. These stories and the broader, aggregated, thematic, outcomes have been used to examine the Sci-ID model. These outcomes stress three main themes related to the study (or not) of science, that include (i) progressive transformational learning and smooth transformation, (ii) progressive transformational learning and wavering transformation and (iii) reconstructive transformational learning and wavering transformation. These themes indicates that people in life accept and reject certain TL experiences that either ‘go with their IIA’ or ‘go against it’. The majority find their way, choose and select TL experiences exhibiting small or medium movement towards or away from science. However, very few people exhibit large movement accompanied by regressive TL experiences. This study also reveals the existence of two very broad kinds of people (i) people who demonstrate stable pro-science or anti science and (ii) ‘fluid’ people who populate the centre-ground between pro-science and anti-science people. The fluid group caught my attention because their IIA shows greater ambivalence and the impact of GF, SA, incorporating events, triggers and interventions appear to have more impact than on those with a more stable science identity. Therefore, through six science education-based interventions I was able to work with – and influence - more ‘fluid’ kinds of secondary school girls. I used a number of mini-transformative experiences that led them to gain appreciation of science-based education and possible future science careers.

A growing body of evidence suggests that some Science teachers use drama-based strategies in order to promote understanding of abstract scientific concepts. These strategies employ action and imagination to simulate systems and processes that are too fast, too slow, too big, too small, too expensive or too dangerous to observe in the classroom. A small group of quantitative and qualitative studies over the past thirty years has suggested that these physical simulations enable learning in secondary students, by promoting discourse and by conveying concept features through a range of sensations. The field is as yet under-theorised, consisting of single case designs and unreplicated methodologies. This multiple case study focused upon an intervention design based on a pedagogical model developed in my Masters research. This study aimed to explore the characteristics of students' interaction and the nature of their resultant conceptions over four months. Each case focussed upon one of eight Key Stage 3 and Key Stage 4 classes across a variety of UK schools. In each, a curriculum-based particle theory topic was taught in a double-period lesson. Data included video, participant observations, and interviews with three students from each class collected at pre, post and delayed intervals. Findings suggested that the pedagogy engendered engagement and self-regulation in group model-making tasks, and supported thought experiment-type visualisations of dynamic processes. Conceptual development was found to continue up to four months after the lessons. A model of learning was developed in which social interaction and multimodal discourse promoted the association of conceptual features with affective, visual and embodied images, which supported recall, discussion and further conceptual development in the longer term.