This thesis was funded by the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) and is presented in an alternative thesis format. The thesis consists of three separate journal articles which form a coherent research project. Paper 1 investigates the development of strong winds in a dry, idealised extratropical cyclone using the horizontal momentum equation. In particular, the southwest wind maximum that develops was found to contain air parcels from three airstreams. The development of the horizontal along-flow forces around the cyclone and along trajectories entering the southwest wind maximum were analysed. An attempt to extend this methodology to a moist, idealised extratropical cyclone was made. However, the effect of adding moisture to the initial condition was found to be negligible. The reasons for this are explored in Paper 2, which documents this finding: that the effect of moisture on the development of an idealised, baroclinic wave is sensitive to the choice of initial condition. Paper 3 applies the horizontal momentum equation diagnostics to an intense, marine extratropical cyclone that brought strong winds to Ireland and the United Kingdom on 12 February 2014. The development of strong winds in Cyclone Tini was investigated by turning off latent heat release and surface fluxes. In the absence of latent heat release a weaker wind maximum developed. However, the simulation without surface fluxes had a very similar vertical structure of the horizontal wind to the full-physics simulation, but a weaker surface wind maximum. The reason for this weaker wind maximum was analysed using the quasigeostrophic omega equation. This analysis demonstrated a maximum in forcing for descent southwest of the low both in the full-physics simulation and in the simulation without surface fluxes, however strong winds were prevented from reaching the surface in the simulation without surface fluxes because of a more stable boundary layer around the bent-back front.

Der Bericht beschreibt, wie die akustische Abschirmwirkung von Wäldern mit Hilfe eines akustisch-meteorologischen Modells ermittelt werden kann. Aus den Berechnungen werden meteorologische Zusatzdämpfungen für die Vegetationsarten Wiese, Nadelwald und Laubwald abgeleitet. Insbesondere im schalltechnisch kritischen Nachtzeitraum ist Nadelwald in einem lockeren Bestand für Schallschutzmaßnahmen am besten geeignet. Durch Schallschutzmaßnahmen in Form von Waldflächen kann eine deutliche Verbesserung des Schallschutzes in der Nähe von Straßen und Schienen erreicht werden. Die Veröffentlichung dient der Unterstützung von Planungsempfehlungen für einen verbesserten Schallschutz und wendet sich insbesondere an Immissionsschutz- und Forstbehörden.

Dust storms are one of the natural hazards, which have increased in frequency in the recent years over Sahara desert, Australia, the Arabian Desert, Turkmenistan and northern China, which have worsened during the last decade. Dust storms increase air pollution, impact on urban areas and farms as well as affecting ground and air traffic. They cause damage to human health, reduce the temperature, cause damage to communication facilities, reduce visibility which delays both road and air traffic and impact on both urban and rural areas. Thus, it is important to know the causation, movement and radiation effects of dust storms. The monitoring and forecasting of dust storms is increasing in order to help governments reduce the negative impact of these storms. Satellite remote sensing is the most common method but its use over sandy ground is still limited as the two share similar characteristics. However, satellite remote sensing using true-colour images or estimates of aerosol optical thickness (AOT) and algorithms such as the deep blue algorithm have limitations for identifying dust storms. Many researchers have studied the detection of dust storms during daytime in a number of different regions of the world including China, Australia, America, and North Africa using a variety of satellite data but fewer studies have focused on detecting dust storms at night. The key elements of this present study are to use data from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometers on the Terra and Aqua satellites to develop more effective automated method for detecting dust storms during both day and night and generate a MODIS dust storm database.

Dust is a critical component of the Earth System. The central and western Sahara (CWS) is the dustiest place on Earth during the northern hemisphere summer. Understanding patterns and causes of spatial and temporal variability of dust presence here is essential for its reliable simulation in numerical models of weather and climate. Four papers in this thesis contribute to that objective, utilising a combination of high temporal resolution satellite data and global atmospheric reanalyses for June – August 2004 – 2010 inclusive. The first paper develops an objective dust detection scheme for the CWS using data from the Spinning Enhanced Visible and Infrared Imager (SEVIRI), which are available every 15 minutes around the clock. These data have shed valuable insight on CWS dust processes, but their subjective application has to date limited their range of applications. The SEVIRI dust flag (SDF) developed here is evaluated against other widely used surface and satellite derived indicators of dustiness and it is found to reliably detect the presence of moderate-heavy dust loadings. The distribution of dust each summer is presented, revealing a high degree of interannual variability in overall dust coverage. The second paper utilises SDF to create an objective, high spatial resolution dust source map, based on the automated tracking of individual dust plumes. The most active sources are associated predominantly with palaeo-lakes and outwash plains, typically around the Saharan mountains. There is a clear intraseasonal progression of active source areas, controlled by regional climatology. The tracking scheme describes the transport trajectory of dust events following their initiation and the spatial association with deep convection at this time, revealing a clear regional divide in the relative importance of known meteorological mechanisms that drive dust emission from the dominant sources. The third paper uses an unsupervised clustering algorithm to classify maps of daily dust presence frequency and identify patterns of intraseasonal variability in CWS dust coverage. The resulting idealised dust states vary according to frequency of dust occurrence and its location, demonstrating a clear progression in preferred dust location from June – August and preferred state transitions from one day to the next. High daily dust occurrence frequency corresponds to an advanced West African Monsoon flow and low daily dust occurrence frequency corresponds to a Harmattan-dominated CWS. The overall location of the dust is linked to the location of the Sahara Heat Low, which changes as the summer progresses. The final paper addresses interannual variability in summertime dust presence frequency by comparing the 2 years with highest (2005) and lowest (2008) dust presence. The key difference is the occurrence of 3 multi-day periods in 2005 characterised by anomalously high dust presence. Case study comparison with the 3 periods of highest dust presence in 2008 identifies the anticyclonic circulation of the midtroposphere as a key control on dust duration over the CWS, dictating whether emitted dust is efficiently transported away from the CWS or whether it remains in suspension over the region for prolonged periods of time, up to several days in the anomalously dusty periods of 2005.

Cette thèse s’inscrit dans la problématique de l’utilisation des observations satellitaires pour l’assimilation en prévision numérique du temps dans les régions nuageuses pluvieuses. Les travaux sont abordés en lien avec l’amélioration de la prévision des cyclones tropicaux et s’appuient sur la mission satellitaire innovante MEGHATROPIQUES couvrant les zones tropicales avec une répétitivité temporelle inégalée et en particulier sur le sondeur micro-ondes d’humidité SAPHIR à 183 GHz. Nous avons utilisé le modèle de prévision numérique du temps ALADIN-Réunion opérationnel à Météo-France depuis 2006 dont le domaine couvre une large partie de l’océan Indien avec une résolution horizontale de 8 km, ainsi que le modèle de transfert radiatif RTTOV-SCATT qui offre un bon compromis entre sa précision pour décrire les atmosphères diffusantes et sa rapidité d’exécution. Dans un premier temps nous avons optimisé le choix des propriétés radiatives des précipitations solides afin de simuler au mieux les températures de brillance SAPHIR avec les modèles ALADIN-Réunion et RTTOV-SCATT. Nous avons ensuite proposé une méthode d’inversion des températures de brillance SAPHIR en zones nuageuses basée sur une méthode bayésienne permettant de restituer des profils atmosphériques corrigés. Ces profils inversés ont été validés pour une situation particulière associée au cyclone Benilde (Décembre 2011). Les profils d’humidité spécifique ont alors été introduits comme de nouvelles observations dans l’assimilation variationnelle tridimensionnelle (3D-Var) du modèle ALADIN-Réunion. La capacité du système 3D-Var à contraindre le champ d’humidité analysé vers les profils inversés est démontrée, ainsi que l’amélioration des prévisions de précipitations à courte échéance. Toutefois, la prévision du cyclone Benilde est de moins bonne qualité avec ces observations additionnelles. Plusieurs pistes sont proposées pour expliquer et améliorer ces premiers résultats. Finalement, une étude a été réalisée pour préparer les évolutions des modèles de prévision numérique. Nous avons examiné la capacité d’une version d’ALADIN-Réunion avec un schéma de convection profonde pronostique à simuler le cycle de vie du cyclone Bejisa (Décembre 2013 - Janvier 2014). Des améliorations significatives sont notées à la fois sur la trajectoire et l’intensification de ce système tropical. De manière cohérente, la simulation des températures de brillance SAPHIR en zones nuageuses est en meilleur accord avec les observations. Un modèle à plus fine échelle (AROME) résolvant explicitement la convection profonde (résolution horizontale de 2.5 km) est appelé à remplacer le modèle ALADIN-Réunion. Sa capacité à décrire le système Bejisa est démontrée. Toutefois il apparaît que le choix optimal pour le type de particule décrivant les précipitations solides fait pour ALADIN-Réunion n’est pas adapté à la simulation des températures de brillance SAPHIR avec AROME et RTTOV-SCATT. Les causes de cette incohérence sont expliquées. / This thesis is focused on the use of satellite observations within cloudy and rainy areas for assimilation in numerical weather prediction models. The activities have been undertaken in the context of tropical cyclone forecasting. They have taken advantage of the recent satellite mission MEGHA-TROPIQUES covering tropical regions with an unprecedented temporal revisit with a focus on the humidity sounder SAPHIR at 183 GHz. We have used the numerical weather prediction model ALADIN-Réunion that is operational at Météo-France since 2006 and covers a large fraction of the Indian ocean with a 8 km horizontal resolution. The radiative transfer model RTTOV-SCATT has also been considered, since it provides a good compromise between its accuracy to simulate scattering atmospheres and its computational cost. In a first step, the choice of the radiative properties for solid precipitating particles has been optimized in order to improve the simulation of SAPHIR brightness temperatures with ALADIN-Réunion and RTTOV-SCATT models. Then, an inversion method of cloudy SAPHIR brightness temperatures based on the bayesian technique has been chosen in order to retrieve improved atmospheric profiles. The retrieved profiles have been validated for a case study corresponding to the tropical cyclone Benilde (December 2011). Profiles of specific humidity have been introduced as new observations in the tridimensional variational assimilation (3D-Var) system of the ALADIN-Réunion model. The capacity of the 3D-Var system to constrain the humidity analysis towards the retrieved profiles is demonstrated, together with improved short-range precipitation forecasts. On the other hand, the prediction of the tropical cyclone Benilde is degraded with these additional observations. A number of reasons are provided to explain and improve these first results. Finally, a study has been done to prepare future evolutions of numerical weather prediction models. We have examined the skill of a version of the ALADIN-Réunion model with a prognostic deep moist convection scheme to simulate the life cycle of tropical cyclone Bejisa (December 2013 - January 2014). Significant improvements have been noticed on the trajectory and on the intensification of this tropical system. Consistently, the simulation of SAPHIR brightness temperatures is in better agreement with observations. A fine scale model (AROME) describing explicitly deep moist convection is planned to replace the ALADIN-Réunion model. Its ability to describe the cyclone Bejisa is demonstrated. However, it appears that the optimal choice of the solid particle made for ALADIN-Réunion is not suited for the simulation of SAPHIR brightness temperatures with AROME and RTTOV-SCATT. Explanations are given of such inconsistency.

Der Bericht beschreibt, wie die akustische Abschirmwirkung von Wäldern mit Hilfe eines akustisch-meteorologischen Modells ermittelt werden kann. Aus den Berechnungen werden meteorologische Zusatzdämpfungen für die Vegetationsarten Wiese, Nadelwald und Laubwald abgeleitet. Insbesondere im schalltechnisch kritischen Nachtzeitraum ist Nadelwald in einem lockeren Bestand für Schallschutzmaßnahmen am besten geeignet. Durch Schallschutzmaßnahmen in Form von Waldflächen kann eine deutliche Verbesserung des Schallschutzes in der Nähe von Straßen und Schienen erreicht werden. Die Veröffentlichung dient der Unterstützung von Planungsempfehlungen für einen verbesserten Schallschutz und wendet sich insbesondere an Immissionsschutz- und Forstbehörden.

Doppler radar wind profilers are already widely used to measure atmospheric winds throughout the free troposphere and stratosphere. Several methods have been developed to quantify atmospheric turbulence with such radars, but to date they have remained largely un-tested; this thesis presents the first comprehensive validation of one such method. Conventional in-situ measurements of turbulence have been concentrated in the surface layer, with some aircraft and balloon platforms measuring at higher altitudes on a case study basis. Radars offer the opportunity to measure turbulence near continuously, and at a range of altitudes, to provide the first long term observations of atmospheric turbulence above the surface layer. Two radars were used in this study, a Mesosphere-Stratosphere-Troposphere (MST) radar, at Capel Dewi, West Wales, and the Facility for Ground Based Atmospheric Measurements (FGAM) mobile boundary layer profiler. In-situ measurements were made using aircraft and tethered-balloon borne turbulence probes. The spectral width method was chosen for detailed testing, which uses the width of a radar's Doppler spectrum as a measure of atmospheric velocity variance. Broader Doppler spectra indicate stronger turbulence. To obtain Gaussian Doppler spectra (a requirement of the spectral width method), combination of between five and seven consecutive spectra was required. Individual MST spectra were particularly non-Gaussian, because of the sparse nature of turbulence at its observation altitudes. The width of Gaussian fits to the Doppler spectrum were compared to those from the `raw' spectrum, to ensure that non-atmospheric signals were not measured. Corrections for non-turbulent broadening, such as beam broadening, and signal processing, were investigated. Shear broadening was found to be small, and the errors in its calculation large, so no corrections for wind shear were applied. Beam broadening was found to be the dominant broadening contribution, and also contributed the largest uncertainty to spectral widths. Corrected spectral widths were found to correlate with aircraft measurements for both radars. Observing spectral widths over time periods of 40 and 60 minutes for the boundary layer profiler and MST radar respectively, gave the best measure of turbulence intensity and variability. Median spectral widths gave the best average over that period, with two-sigma limits (where sigma is the standard deviation of spectral widths) giving the best representation of the variability in turbulence. Turbulent kinetic energies were derived from spectral widths; typical boundary layer values were 0.13 m 2.s (-2) with a two-sigma range of 0.04-0.25 m 2.s (-2), and peaked at 0.21 m 2.s (-2) with a two-sigma range of 0.08-0.61 m 2.s (-2). Turbulent kinetic energy dissipation rates were also calculated from spectral widths, requiring radiosonde measurements of atmospheric stability. Dissipation rates compared well width aircraft measurements, reaching peaks of 1x10 (-3) m 2.s (-3) within 200 m of the ground, and decreasing to 1-2x10 (-5) m 2.s (-3) near the boundary layer capping inversion. Typical boundary layer values were between 1-3x10 (-4) m 2.s (-3). Those values are in close agreement with dissipation rates from previous studies.