This thesis presents an examination of the interplay between bamboo and institutions of resource management in China, India and internationally, highlighting the need for greater diversity and scope of Western dominated forestry institutions and associated mechanisms. Firstly, the thesis aims to explore the conceptual understanding of forests and the exclusion of bamboo from this construction. The key reason this question is important is that it changes the 'technological zones‘ of forestry. Growing resource scarcity has meant that bamboo is now an increasingly important input in the global forest products marketplace. Secondly, the thesis aims to examine how governance mechanisms and actors respond to the inclusion of this new input. The thesis adopts the 'paper route'; the first paper traces the socio-historical reasons why bamboo‘s potential is yet to be realised, particularly within international policy. It considers the challenges of forestry being predominantly conceptualised as treed lands and the implications for the limited efficacy of sustainable forestry, carbon and trade instruments when applied to bamboo. The second paper acts as an introduction to Western produced forest certification devices, focusing on their transformation within forestry institutions and perceived legitimacy within China. The third paper focuses on a case study of bamboo certification in India. The final paper analyses the controversy regarding the efficacy of forest certification for bamboo globally. The thesis aims to explore these topics through three lines of theory. First, it contributes to institutional framing theory by examining where the idea of a 'forest' originated from and the consequences this has had for the rise of bamboo as a 'timber' product. Second, the thesis aims to further legitimacy theory in two key ways, by examining how the Chinese government accommodates and facilitates the differing needs of both international and domestic markets, whilst ultimately assuming a legitimate form of (institutionalised) domestic governance, and how the perceived input (procedure) and output (efficacy) legitimacy influence the potential success of current and future forest certification for bamboo. Third, the thesis seeks to provide a dynamic analysis of the role of certification through the lens of performativity, which uncovers how certification can create different realities for different actors. This thesis is timely and important for a number of reasons. Firstly, China is gaining more prominence on the world stage, both as an economic and political power. With increased pressure on forestry resources, the forestry administration is determined to upscale sustainable forest management. This requires adhering to global notions of sustainability thorough market mechanisms and ensuring a degree of autonomy of forest management through localising processes. Secondly, China recently received Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) bamboo certification for some of the most intensively managed areas in the country. This has increased controversy amongst experts regarding the efficacy of the mechanism to truly bring about sustainable bamboo management. Thirdly, on a more global scale, one of the crucial issues with up-scaling bamboo management is the fact that there are over 1,200 species of bamboo, with three different rooting structures: monopodial (diffuse) sympodial (clumping), and amphodial (mixed) – which have distinct policy and management needs. Focusing purely on the large-scale, intensively managed, monopodial or treelike' stands in China would ignore the vast areas of small-scale, sympodial bamboo homesteads with issues regarding flowering and propagation of sterile species. Bamboo plantations in Africa, Latin America, and India are being developed, which require enabling policy and management mechanisms. With a global industry estimated at US$10bn, the implications of an inclusive and enabling frame for bamboo management could have wide ranging impacts for both natural resource management and livelihood development.

The tiger nut (Cyperus esculentus) has attracted a lot of unsubstantiated health claims, yet there is a dearth of research investigation within Ghana specifically in the area of food product development. This study addresses the development of ‘functional bread and biscuit’ from tiger nuts obtained from UK market (Spain). The chemical constituents; carbohydrate, lipid, protein, dietary minerals and antioxidants, the functional properties of three varieties of tiger nuts obtained from Ghana (black and brown), Cameroon (yellow) and UK market (Spain) (brown) were investigated using standard analytical methods as well as the blood glucose response of healthy adults who consumed the developed bread. Tiger nuts were found to be good sources of carbohydrate (51-82g/100g) and lipids (21-37g/100g). The dietary fibre components ranged between 18, 1, 19 and 19g/100g for IDF, SDFP, HMWDF, and ITDF respectively, while the available carbohydrate as sugars were 45, 0.5 and 5g/100g for glucose, maltose and xylose respectively. Minerals that were found to be inherent to the crop were; potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, copper, iron, zinc and selenium and do not depend on place of origin. The following ratios for Sodium/Potassium 0.04, Calcium/Phosphorus 0.13 and Calcium/Magnesium 0.28 were obtained. Tiger nuts had TPC ≥ 134GAE per g, DPPH and stability index of 0.9-8.7mmol/litre and 3- 4 respectively. In conclusion the tiger nuts originating from different geographical locations were good sources of health giving minerals and had diversity of physical properties and chemical constituents which could inform future research in the functional food industry. Tiger nut could be added to the Ghana food basket and the product developed from it could be a potential functional food because of its effect on glucose response and phytochemical contents. It could again be used to replace artificial antioxidants (BHA or BHT) which are used in the food industry to inhibit lipid and protein oxidation especially the black variety.

Les lésions surrénaliennes surviennent dans la population générale à une fréquence d’environ 2-3%. Parmi les anomalies génétiques identifiées jusqu’à présent dans les tumeurs surrénaliennes, les mutations somatiques de β-caténine sont les plus prévalentes. Elles sont présentes dans environ 20% des adénomes et carcinomes cortico-surrénaliens. β-caténine est l’élément central de la voie canonique de WNT qui joue un rôle crucial dans le développement embryonnaire, l’homéostase et la tumourigenèse. Les mutations activatrices de β-caténine conduisent à l’accumulation nucléaire de β- caténine qui interagit avec les TCF/LEF-1 qui active la transcription des gènes cibles. Les gènes cibles de β-caténine, varient et dépendent du contexte cellulaire. Dans la glande surrénale, les gènes cibles de β-caténine sont inconnus. Nous avons effectué des études de microarray qui nous ont permis d’identifier 490 transcrits dérégulés dans les adénomes corticosurrénaliens porteurs de mutations ponctuelles de β-caténine. L’expression aberrante d’ISM1, RALBP1, PDE2A, CDH12, ENC1, PHYHIP et CITED2 dans les adénomes porteurs de mutations de β-caténine a été confirmée par PCR en temps réel. Le traitement des cellules humaines de carcinome cortico-surrénalien H295R (mutation de CTNNB1, Ser45Prol) avec les inhibiteurs de β-caténine/TCF (PKF115-584 et PNU74654) ont confirmé l'implication de β-caténine dans la régulation transcriptionelle d’ISM1, RALBP1, PDE2A, ENC1 et CITED2. En conclusion, nos travaux ont conduit à l’identification de nouveaux gènes cibles de β-catenin impliqués dans la tumourigenèse cortico-surrénalienne. / Adrenal lesions occur in the general population at a prevalence of about 2-3%. Several mutations have been identified in adrenocortical tumours. β-catenin mutations were recently found to be the most frequent genetic alteration in both sporadic adrenocortical adenomas and carcinomas (20-30%). β-catenin is the central player in canonical Wnt signaling which plays a key role in organ/ gland development, maintenance of homeostasis and tumourigenesis. Activation of Wnt signaling by altered regulation of β-catenin levels evokes -catenin accumulation in the nucleus, and interaction with the TCF/LEF-1 proteins that activates the transcription of target genes. These target genes are believed to be highly cell and context specific and are linked to developmental and cell cycling functions. β-catenin target genes in adrenocortical tumours are unknown. Using microarray technology, we found 490 transcripts that are deregulated in adrenocortical adenomas harbouring β-catenin activating mutations in comparison to non mutated adenomas and normal adrenal glands. These genes differ highly in function and many are poorly characterized genes. Differential expression of ISM1, RALBP1, PDE2A, CDH12, ENC1, PHYHIP and CITED2 in adenomas with activating β-catenin mutations was confirmed by real-time PCR. Treatment of human adrenocortical carcinoma cells, H295R (CTNNB1 Ser45Prol), with β-catenin/TCF inhibitors (PKF115-584 and PNU74654) further confirmed the implication of β-catenin on the transcriptional regulation of ISM1, RALBP1, PDE2A, ENC1 and CITED2. In conclusion, we have found new potential β-catenin target genes that may be involved in adrenocortical tumourigenesis.

Les lésions surrénaliennes surviennent dans la population générale à une fréquence d’environ 2-3%. Parmi les anomalies génétiques identifiées jusqu’à présent dans les tumeurs surrénaliennes, les mutations somatiques de β-caténine sont les plus prévalentes. Elles sont présentes dans environ 20% des adénomes et carcinomes cortico-surrénaliens. β-caténine est l’élément central de la voie canonique de WNT qui joue un rôle crucial dans le développement embryonnaire, l’homéostase et la tumourigenèse. Les mutations activatrices de β-caténine conduisent à l’accumulation nucléaire de β- caténine qui interagit avec les TCF/LEF-1 qui active la transcription des gènes cibles. Les gènes cibles de β-caténine, varient et dépendent du contexte cellulaire. Dans la glande surrénale, les gènes cibles de β-caténine sont inconnus. Nous avons effectué des études de microarray qui nous ont permis d’identifier 490 transcrits dérégulés dans les adénomes corticosurrénaliens porteurs de mutations ponctuelles de β-caténine. L’expression aberrante d’ISM1, RALBP1, PDE2A, CDH12, ENC1, PHYHIP et CITED2 dans les adénomes porteurs de mutations de β-caténine a été confirmée par PCR en temps réel. Le traitement des cellules humaines de carcinome cortico-surrénalien H295R (mutation de CTNNB1, Ser45Prol) avec les inhibiteurs de β-caténine/TCF (PKF115-584 et PNU74654) ont confirmé l'implication de β-caténine dans la régulation transcriptionelle d’ISM1, RALBP1, PDE2A, ENC1 et CITED2. En conclusion, nos travaux ont conduit à l’identification de nouveaux gènes cibles de β-catenin impliqués dans la tumourigenèse cortico-surrénalienne. / Adrenal lesions occur in the general population at a prevalence of about 2-3%. Several mutations have been identified in adrenocortical tumours. β-catenin mutations were recently found to be the most frequent genetic alteration in both sporadic adrenocortical adenomas and carcinomas (20-30%). β-catenin is the central player in canonical Wnt signaling which plays a key role in organ/ gland development, maintenance of homeostasis and tumourigenesis. Activation of Wnt signaling by altered regulation of β-catenin levels evokes -catenin accumulation in the nucleus, and interaction with the TCF/LEF-1 proteins that activates the transcription of target genes. These target genes are believed to be highly cell and context specific and are linked to developmental and cell cycling functions. β-catenin target genes in adrenocortical tumours are unknown. Using microarray technology, we found 490 transcripts that are deregulated in adrenocortical adenomas harbouring β-catenin activating mutations in comparison to non mutated adenomas and normal adrenal glands. These genes differ highly in function and many are poorly characterized genes. Differential expression of ISM1, RALBP1, PDE2A, CDH12, ENC1, PHYHIP and CITED2 in adenomas with activating β-catenin mutations was confirmed by real-time PCR. Treatment of human adrenocortical carcinoma cells, H295R (CTNNB1 Ser45Prol), with β-catenin/TCF inhibitors (PKF115-584 and PNU74654) further confirmed the implication of β-catenin on the transcriptional regulation of ISM1, RALBP1, PDE2A, ENC1 and CITED2. In conclusion, we have found new potential β-catenin target genes that may be involved in adrenocortical tumourigenesis.