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This study examines the diet and foraging behaviour ofRhinolophus hipposideros from maternity colonies in three contrasting landscapes within Britain. Geographical and seasonal variations in diet and habitat selection exist. .Broadleaved woodlands, water, rural settlements and pastures with wooded edge or unmanaged hedges were generally most utilised and broad-leaved tree cover and edge habitats are likely to be of key importance. The presence of non-volant prey in the diet confirms gleaning, but the majority of prey is probably caught on. the wing during aerial hawking, within or close to the tree canopy. Feeding on swarming insects may play a major part in foraging, with dusk, and to a lesser extent dawn, being important foraging times. The first flying bout was significantly longer in the lowland implying feeding is more efficient in the high quality and upland landscapes. Bats flew for on average 57 % of the night but colder temperatures and increasing rainfall resulted in bats flying for longer. They may aim to reach a target of energy consumption, which takes longer in poorer conditions. An average of 2.1-4.5 night roosting bouts were recorded and R. hipposideros may deviate from the more typical bimodal pattern as their broad diet allows them to feed throughout the night. Night roosts were significantly nearer to core foraging areas than the maternity roost and may form an integral part of the core areas. Foraging density was estimated to be 0.09-0.50 batslha. The ranging behaviour was consistent across the three landscapes. Average home range was 147-177 ha and mean n:taximum distance from the maternity roost waS 2 Ian. It is likely that the bats were adopting an optimal behaviour that is constrained by the species' morphology. The implications of the findings for the species' conservation are discussed and management recommendations are made.

The mantle pyruvate kinase (E.C. NO. 2.7.1.40) of Mytilus is shown to be subject to allosteric regulation, being inhibited by L-alanine and activated by D-fructose-1,6-diphosphate. It is also inhibited by adenosine-5'-triphosphate and to a lesser extent by L-phenylalanine and L-valine. Substrate (phosphoenolpyruvate) dependence of the enzyme is sigmoidal, and the sigmoidicity is increased at low pH. D-fructose-l,6-diphosphate at physiological concentrations over-rides inhibition of the enzyme by L-alanine. The result of these modulators acting together is suggested to Indicate that both the reaction catalysed by pyruvate kinase (phosphoenolpyruvate ? pyruvate) and the reaction catalysed by phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (E.C, No, 4,1,1,32) (phosphoenolpyruvate ? oxaloacetate) could proceed together, with the predominance of one reaction over the other possibly being determined by the degree of tissue hypoxia. The value for K0.5s PEP of mantle pyruvate kinase varies seasonally and different patterns of variation are observed in three populations of Mytilus. The changes in substrate affinities are explained in terms of the different gametogenic cycles and ambient temperature regimes of the populations. The values for K0.5S posterior adductor muscle pyruvate kinases of two of the populations show a difference due to ambient temperature. It is concluded that the generation of molecular variants of pyruvate kinase from mantle tissue is related to gametogenesis. The implications of this conclusion are discussed in terms of the seasonal reproductive storage cycles of marine invertebrates. The operation of the anaerobic pathway in the posterior adductor musole of Mytilus is demonstrated under conditions of reduced ambient oxygen tension, viz: 120 mm Hg, 80 mm Hg and 40 mm Hg. Alanine, malate, succinate and glutamate accumulate while the steady-state concentration of "total amino acids" does not change. It is concluded that simultaneous operation of acrobic and anaerobic pathways in a single tissue occurs. The anaerobic pathway is operative also in whole tissues of Mytilus but not apparently in the mantle tissue i.e. a differential response of different tissues to partial anaerobiosis is observed. The anaerobic pathway is increasingly operative with reduction in ambient oxygen tension. The time-course of the substrate accumulations parallels the time-course of physiological acclimation of the whole organism to low oxygen tension. The levels of accumulated substrates decrease as acclimation increases the supplies of oxygen to the tissues, but generally remain in excess of the control concentrations after the process of acclimation has occurred indicating a continuing operation of the anaerobic pathway. Ration and temperature as stressors do not cause the anaerobic pathway to be operative at full air-saturation in the posterior adductor muscle, mantle (ration only) and whole tissues (temperature only), but do have an indirect effect on the requirement for its operation at reduced ambient oxygen tensions. The combination of very low oxygen tension (40 mm Hg) and warm temperature stress (+7C) is lethal and Mytilus is unable to acclimate. This is reflected biochemically in a continuing accumulation of anaerobic substrates without any subsequent decline in concentrations. A seasonal aspect to anaerobic metabolism is also indicated in the data. The amino acid aspartic acid is shown to be involved in anaerobic metabolism. Its concentration at reduced oxygen tensions changes in a reciprocal fashion to those of alanine, glutamate and succinate i.e. as the concentrations of the latter substrates decrease that of aspartic acid increases (and vice-versa). The amino acid alanine does not always accumulate at reduced oxygen tension while the accumulations of malate and succinate appear dependent upon the particular conditions of partial anaerobiosis. A ratio of aspartate: glutamate is proposed as an "index of anaerobic metabolism" and the use of the index as an indicator of sublethal-stress is discussed. The possible metabolic relationship of aspartate and glutamate is discussed and suggestions are made regarding the roles of these amino acids in anaerobic metabolism. Comparisons are made with the current hypotheses of the reaction pathways of anaerobic metabolism. The kinetic, adaptive and in some instances the regulatory properties of the phosphoenolpyruvate-carboxykinases, L-malate dehydrogenases (E.C. NO. 1.1.1.37) and L-glutamate dehydrogenases (E.C. NO. 1.4.1.3) from the posterior adductor muscle and mantle tissues of Mytilus are described. The optimal assay conditions and pH-profiles are demonstrated and comparisons of the enzymes from the two tissues made. No qualitative or quantitative changes in the pyruvate kinases and phosphoenolpyruvate- carboxykinases occur with acclimation to low oxygen tension but a qualitative change in the malate dehydrogenases is indicated. A possible regulatory role for the malate dehydrogenases is also indicated. The properties of all the enzymes studied are discussed in relation to anaerobic metabolism and are also compared with the known properties of other invertebrate and vertebrate enzymes. The results and conclusions of the experimental studies are discussed finally in relation to the possible role of the anaerobic pathway in the ecology of Mytilus and other marine invertebrates.

In order to study the social behaviour of the Chilean Teal observations were made on a captive group kept in as natural a setting as possible. These observations were supplemented with information taken from a second group kept in a flight pen. From these observations a repertoire of species specific action patterns was established. Films were made of naturally occuring episodes of social display. These films were analysed frame by frame and the data obtained treated in various ways. These included intra- and inter-individual transition analysis, temporal associations, interruption of ongoing activities, variation in the duration of movements and the spacing and orientation of males while performing some movements associated with social display. The results are discussed in terns of the synchronisation of behaviour in a group, pairing behaviour, the role of social display in surface-feeding ducks, the role of the female in social display and the usefulness of the concept of the Fixed Action Pattern in describing such behaviour. The methods of analysis used are compared with those used by others working in this area.

In the first half of this thesis, I have focused on predator ability to locate prey using olfaction and how prey aggregation and turbulence affect prey detection. In chapter 2 I investigate the ability of three spined sticklebacks to compensate for loss of visual cues by using olfaction and find that they can use olfactory cues but that these most likely help the fish detect prey rather than locate prey. In chapter 3 I explore the effect of prey aggregation as an anti-predator strategy when avoiding an olfactory predator and find that aggregated prey survive longer than do dispersed prey. In order to further investigate why this may be, I carried out an experiment using Gammarus pulex as the predator where I recorded search time as a function of prey group size. I found that similarly to detection distance, search time relates to the square root of the number of prey. Finally, I investigate the effect that turbulence in flowing water may have on prey group detection using three spined sticklebacks in a y-maze. I find that risk of detection increases with prey group size but that turbulence lowers this risk. This may mean that there are thresholds below which size prey groups can benefit from turbulence as a ‘sensory refuge’ thus avoiding predators. In the second part of my thesis I focus on the interactions between a cleaner fish and a parasite in an aquaculture setting focusing on whether said fish is useful as a cleaner in industry. I carry out experiments to investigate the use of lumpfish as salmon cleaners in terms of cleaning efficiency and behaviour. I find that while some lumpfish do clean salmon, the required circumstances are still unknown and that further work including selective breeding, personality and effects of tanks is necessary.

Firstly, changes in peripheral section of oxytocin and α-MSH, and changes in oxytocin and α-MSH neurone activity were studied in male rats during copulation. Intromission increased plasma concentration of both oxytocin and α-MSH and Fos expression in neurones in the SON and in the PVN and in the accurate nucleus was increased, confirming the similarities between oxytocin and α-MSH in their involvement in male sexual behaviour. The putative interaction between oxytocin and α-MSH was then investigated by studying at which central or peripheral level this interaction would occur. Oxytocin antagonist iv-injection had no effect on the increase of oxytocin and α-MSH secretion during intromission, suggesting that peripheral oxytocin does not regulate peripheral α-MSH secretion. However, oxytocin administered centrally to non-mating conscious rates decreased plasma α-MSH concentration, suggesting that central oxytocin may regulate α-MSH peripheral secretion. These studies therefore support an interaction between central oxytocin and α-MSH. Then, the effects of central α-MSH on oxytocin secretion and neuronal activity were investigated. Central administration of α-MSH induced Fos expression in magnocellular oxytocin neurones in the SON and in the PVN but had no effect on parvocellular oxytocin neurons in the PVN. Α-MSH directly administered onto the SON induced a strong increase in Fos expression in oxytocin neurones in the SON. These studies indicate that α-MSH modulates directly the activity on selected oxytocin neurones and that consequently, αMSH may regulate some specific oxytocin effects and not others. However, central administration of α-MSH decreased oxytocin secretion from the pituitary gland. This illustrates that Fos induction does not necessarily reflect excitation of the neurones. Finally, MC4R antagonist centrally administered reduced the Fos expression induced at intromission in magnocellular oxytocin neurones but had no effect on the Fos expression in the parvocellular neurones.

This thesis reports the results of investigations on aspects of the pre-oviposition behaviour of <I>Pieris rapae</I> L. (Lepidoptera: Pieridae) in relation to host plant finding and acceptance. Investigations were carried out into various aspects of the influence of sensory cues on host plant finding including the effect of colour and host plant extracts. The results showed that the number of landings was strongly influenced by colour (P<0.001) and that extracts containing contact stimulants also increased the number of landings (P<0.05). Volatile extracts were also tested in a wind tunnel and the results showed that the extracts increased the number and duration of flights as compared to the solvent controls (P<0.05). However, there was no evidence that the volatile extracts tested acted as attractants. Volatile extracts applied to non-host plants increased the proportion of landings as compared to the controls (P<0.05). The role of different sensory cues (volatile extracts, colour contact stimulants), from three host plants with differing acceptabilities were investigated in order to assess the relative importance of each cue. The results showed that the variety tested had a significant influence on the number of landings and eggs laid. Volatile extracts from the three varieties were prepared and their effect on landing in a choice and no-choice test with model plants was carried out. The volatile extracts significantly increased (P<0.05) the number of landings on the treated plants as compared to the controls. The effect of prior experience was also investigated using three host plants with differing acceptabilities to <I>P. rapae</I>. The results showed that the effect of prior experience (P>0.05) itself was not a significant explanatory variable for the number of eggs laid, however, the host plant variety used was a significant explanatory variable (P<0.001). Additionally, there was a significant interaction between these two factors (P<0.05). Finally, an artificial life model of the pre-oviposition behaviour of <I>P. rapae</I> is proposed.

Consistency of aggressiveness within and between situations was examined using a repeated social challenge test (Resident Intruder Test) at various key stages during the lifetime of male and female growing (meat) pigs and a subset of female breeding pigs. Behaviour during mixing at weaning and as gilts was examined and information was collected about the way in which these animals behaved in a social context, including measures related to, but not directly correlated with aggression, such as social status. The effects of age/maturity and experience were also considered. To understand how aggression might integrate within personality the various social measures were compared with cortisol (as a physiological indicator of stress) an a challenging situation unrelated to social confrontation; maternal behaviour was chosen as it is commercially relevant and has important implications for the welfare of gilts and piglets. Pigs were consistent in their responses to the RIT, but there were differences between sexes. Aggressiveness was consistent over a long period of time in female pigs, even with a gap of 90 days between tests and the onset of puberty. Male pigs showed an unexpectedly high level of mounting behaviour from a young age, which increased with maturity. Experience of the RIT improved consistency of responses and age at first testing affected both the speed of attacking and occurrence of attacks; those pigs experiencing the test when younger were more likely to and quicker to attach. RIT aggressiveness was however, not predictive of subsequent aggressiveness at mixing. As with the RIT, there were clear sex-differences observed during mixing at weaning with males being more aggressive, more successful in fights, more likely to mount and less likely to play than females. Pigs employed different strategies during mixing, the extremes of which were categorised by high-play-low-aggressiveness and vice versa. As expected, aggressive individuals were involved in more fights and won more fights, but suffered more skin lesions than non-aggressive individuals. Pigs that engaged in high-playing were generally the least successful in fights, but suffered fewer lesions and had equal ultimate dominance rank to aggressive pigs. The structure of the mixes changes between weaning and puberty. Fighting ceased sooner during the gilt mix, but aggression was more frequent and more severe. Gilts that reacted aggressively to their piglets were more aggressive and successful in the mix and more ‘reactive’ during farrowing. There were other links between farrowing and mixing behaviour, such as more frequent posture changes but less frequent nesting with greater mix-aggressiveness; indicating that aggressiveness and maternal behaviour are linked through personality.

Consistency in the expression of maternal care over a single lactation period was investigated using two breeds of ewe, Scottish Blackface and Suffolk. The two breeds showed differnces in their initial maternal behaviour with Blackface ewes showing more affiliative and less negative behaviour towards their newborn lambs than Suffolk ewes. These differences in maternal behaviour continued throughout lactation. Whilst both breeds were able to recognise their lambs at three days post-partum, Blackface ewes were more motivated to associate with their lambs in a maternal choice test, suggesting that they had a stronger ewe-lamb bond than Suffolk ewes. During the rest of lactation Blackface ewes had a closer spatial relationship with their lambs, accepted a higher proportion of suck attempt from their lambs and showed more communication with them via the head-up posture, compared to Suffolk ewes. Blackface ewes actively interacted with their lambs, using the head-up posture to control sucking interactions and to encourage their lambs to remain in close proximity. In contrast Suffolk ewes were not proactive in their relationship with their lambs and appeared to react to the behaviour of their lambs, rather than actively communicating with them. A Principle Components Factor Analysis showed that two main factors, maternal rejection and maternal protectiveness, can be used to describe variation in maternal behaviour in the ewe. Maternal rejection accounted for most of the variation between the two breeds, with Blackface ewes showing mostly affiliative behaviour and Suffolk ewes showing more negative behaviour. Within the two breeds variation was mainly due to behaviours associated with maternal protectiveness. Individual Blackface ewes showed consistency in their expression of maternal behaviour throughout lactation, but Suffolk ewes did not. This is likely to result in a stable ewe-lamb relationship in Suffolk ewes.

The aims of this thesis were: 1) to identify resources that may be important in the housing of laboratory rabbits (from a survey of the pharmaceutical industry, visits to laboratories and consultation with the industry) and 2) to test the motivation of rabbits for the identified resources. From the survey and behavioural observations of rabbits in different housing systems, it was decided that further investigations would focus on female New Zealand White rabbits and the importance of social contact and platforms within cages. The importance of these resources for rabbits was assessed using both short and long-term motivational tests and observations in laboratory cages. An initial experiment to develop motivational tests identified that weighted push-doors were perceived as costly, but moving through a water bath and approaching an air-stream were not. Short-term motivational tests were set up to give singly and pair caged rabbits the opportunity to push through a weighted push-door to gain a short period of visual and minimal tactile contact with another rabbit. The rabbits pushed through heavier weights to gain social contact than for no reward. Olfactory cues were found to be important, as several rabbits did not push through even the unweighted push-door when the other rabbit was removed. Also, socially housed rabbits pushed through heavier weights for social contact when they were housed out of olfactory contact with their cage-mate. A closed economy consumer demand experiment using weighted push-doors was set-up to test longer term motivation for resources. Two different economic measures (maximum price paid and total expenditure) were used to rank the importance of food, visual and minimal tactile contact, a platform and an empty cage. Both measures showed food and social contact to be of equal and most importance, whilst the importance of the platform varied with the economic measure used.