No description available.

In this 3-year study of roe ecology, I described annual cycles and behaviour patterns before studying dispersion, home range, territorial behaviour and populations. Winter concentrations of roe in woods and on moorland usually included a doe, 2 kids, an adult buck and sometimes 1-2 other deer. Weather measurements showed that concentrations were in places where wind was reduced, but shelter used by roe was not as good on moorland as in woods. In summer roe occupied larger common ranges and no longer lived in groups. Individual ranges of marked adult bucks were uniformly spaced and overlapped little, suggesting that they were territorial or guarding does. Five chases of other bucks by an adult buck ended near a stream regardless of the location of does. Four shot adult bucks were replaced, but 3 yearlings were not. In 5 ranges where does were removed, the adult bucks remained and new does came in. I concluded tentatively that adult bucks during May-August were dominant in specific places rather than near does and hence were territorial. This suggested that roe stayed on the moor in winter despite poor shelter to be locations of their territories. Adult numbers did not appear to increase, despite nearly 2 young per doe annually and little predation or shooting. Young deer emigrated when adult bucks were territorial and aggressive but their fate was unknown. Adult bucks had ranges one-quarter the size where the population was 4 times denser. Possibly, territorial behaviour was limiting adult numbers.

Owing to their cascading effects on ecosystems, keystone species should be a focus of conservation and management efforts. However, in order to manage populations of keystone species – such as deer – effectively, there is a need to quantify how the distribution and abundance of populations may change in the future, and to understand the potential consequences of these changes for biodiversity. By relating species’ abundance data within their historic ranges to habitat variables, I developed a novel methodology to assess habitat suitability for deer across Britain, none of which are currently at equilibrium with their environment. The resultant models performed well in describing the observed, contemporary distribution of roe, red and Chinese muntjac deer in Britain. In particular, the model for the non-native muntjac deer highlighted the potential for this species to expand its range significantly in the future. I estimated, for the first time, the rate and pattern of the future spread of deer at a landscape scale across Britain, using a spatially explicit population model (SEPM). The SEPM accounts for range-limiting processes such as species-specific dispersal ability and environmental barriers to dispersal. The SEPM performed well in describing the observed spread of roe, red and muntjac deer in Britain between 1972 and 2007, and predicted the spread of, and overlap between, species to continue to increase in the future. From sensitivity analyses, I found that the spread of deer was strongly influenced by adult and juvenile survival. I also investigated the impacts of deer on their environment using two approaches. First, using vegetation data collected in 35 woodland sites across Britain, I found negative relationships between the density of roe deer and the diversity and abundance of shrub-layer vegetation. Second, I investigated the potential cascading effect of this negative relationship between deer density and shrub layer vegetation on bird populations. I used a long-running dataset on bird abundances across Britain, to construct and contrast two multi-species composite population trends for birds: one for deer-sensitive woodland birds and the second for deer-tolerant woodland birds. The divergence in these trends showed a striking association to a composite population trend for deer (also calculated using data from long-running volunteer surveys). These results demonstrate the potential for rapid and profound impacts of keystone herbivores across multiple tropic levels, which are likely to increase as a consequence of the predicted future expansion of such species.

No description available.

Camera traps have taken off one of the most popular tools in ecology. This thesis aims to develop existing camera trap methodology in order to better assess the distribution and abundance of deer in the UK. Particular focus was made on the invasion history of muntjac to help elucidate their invasion pattern. The number of founding females was estimated to be 4 or 5 individuals. The effect of covariates on the camera detection zones were considered to help improve density estimates resulting from camera trap research. Flash type and individual passing speed proved to be two important covariates adding weight to the recommendation that camera detection zones should be survey specific and that activity patterns should be considered when determining detection zones. Eight deer population densities were estimated from across the UK using both thermal imaging distance sampling and random encounter model (REM) techniques. A higher density was found with the REM, thought the two methods appeared more comparable in open woodlands. A low quality thermal imagine camera may have bias the results, but this study also emphasises the need to ensure other parameters, such as daily travel distance are site specific and as accurate as possible. Muntjac sightings, within Northern Ireland, were collated and verified using a scoring system and survey combination. The REM was trialled in one site, finding a minimum population of 5 muntjac deer. This baseline result can be used in any future population monitoring. These verified sightings alongside others from Ireland were used to test a muntjac species distribution model with different sampling bias approaches. The random background model was the most parsimonious model suggesting, in this case, that the additional bias controlling techniques may not always be necessary.

No description available.

Deer, both native and non-native, numbers in Great Britain and Ireland are rising, as a result of woodland expansion, increased food availability and a lack of natural predators. At high densities, deer pose a threat to biodiversity and can have negative impacts on forestry and agriculture. However, in certain areas deer are considered to be a resource and provide economic benefits to otherwise fragile rural communities. Estimating deer densities accurately is therefore essential to effectively inform deer management practices. For example, setting cull targets in order to meet different stakeholders’ objectives, such as crop protection, sustainable deer hunting, or to prevent the establishment of an invasive species. Various methods exist to estimate deer numbers, however, in dense forestry these methods can be challenging. Nevertheless, new technologies such as camera traps have helped to facilitate data collection in these areas. This thesis is the first body of research to show that a newly developed deer counting method, the Random Encounter Model, used in conjunction with camera trap technology could be used effectively to monitor the size and distribution of native and invasive deer populations, and provide a step forward in establishing deer management plans. Through the use of citizen science coupled with the development of the REM, this research served to confirm the presence and abundance of a newly invasive deer species. Furthermore, through utilizing molecular diagnostic methods, this thesis describes for the first time, novel pathogens within invasive deer populations, which may pose a disease transmission risk to other wildlife and livestock.

No description available.

The main aims of this project were to look at the development of the mother-offspring relationship with time, and at differences in that relationship between hinds of various categories, divided according to sex of calf and reproductive status of mother. Initially, data from the wild population of red deer on the Isle of Rhum on the association between a hind and her offspring less than two years old were analysed. Changes in association with time and differences between hinds of the various categories are described. In addition, detailed behavioural observations were made of a group of semi-tame deer in a large enclosure. Parturition and early behaviour of mother and calf is described, and red deer behaviour at this time compared with that of other ungulates. Much of the behaviour can be interpreted in terms of predator-avoidance. Quantitative measures of proximity and maintenance of proximity between mother and young and of the interactions between them were used to describe the mother-offspring relationship. As in the wild population, there are differences in the relationship due to sex of calf and reproductive status of mother.

No description available.