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Translocation is a tool for conserving animals and their environment. It is a complex process that involves detailed planning and preparation. The IUCN/SSC/RSG specifies the need for scientific employment in all animal translocation programmes pre-, during- and post-release. In this thesis, I aimed to follow and employ guidelines as detailed by IUCN/SSC Reintroduction Specialist Group for a rehabilitation release of vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus pygerythrus hilgerti) in Kenya. Additionally, I aimed to provide measures of post-release success, using verifiable indicators and criteria against which the release could be quantified. This was achieved by comparing biological and behavioural measures of a release vervet group with indigenous vervet control groups inhabiting the same anthropogenically modified landscape, within the same time period. Data were collected on two habituated control groups of vervet monkeys over a 24-month observation period inhabiting an anthropogenically modified habitat in Kenya. In addition, data were collected over a 20-month pre- and post-release monitoring period on a group of released vervet monkeys, subjected to a rehabilitation release. Datasets included habitat assessments, behavioural ecology, survivorship and social networks. The control data were used to inform release site selection and provided comparable datasets against which the post-release monitoring data could be compared to assess release success. The analysis of the release site selection process indicated that habitat assessments do not provide sufficient detail to be the only selection tool and need to be conducted alongside a minimum one-year food availability study. The behavioural ecology of the control vervet groups showed trends representative of other vervet groups living in anthropogenically modified habitat. Using the control groups behavioural ecology as a unique set of indicators and criteria against which the release group could be monitored, proved to be invaluable. The release was deemed successful due to Release groups survivorship, activity budgets and general feeding ecology falling within the expected ranges set by the control groups. Social network analysis revealed that extended periods of captivity, where new infant individuals are introduced over time, could benefit group cohesion and ultimately post-release survival. The findings of the study indicate that wild-born, rehabilitated vervet monkeys can be successfully returned into the wild, in close proximity to wild conspecifics. It is hoped that future translocations will follow a similar process of comparing biological and behavioural measures between indigenous control groups and newly released groups. Future translocations can benefit from the knowledge gained during this rehabilitation release, and each newly monitored and reported translocation will add vital information to the developing primate translocation model.

The purpose of this thesis is to present data on the social interactions among ten adult baboons, and to show how these interactions are affected by changes in the female reproductive state. Using data on social interactions , I attempt both to describe social relationships and t o suggest how such relationships may contribute to social structure (Hinde in press) . Throughout the thesis, I am concerned with the following three general questions: (1) what are the advantages, to each individual, of life in a social group? (2) how do individuals adjust their behaviour with respect to others? (3) What pr inciples , governing the social behaviour of adults in one troop of baboons, might aid in our understanding of social bonds and social structure in other primate species? These are broad, theoretical questions, and I cannot claim that my research has yielded more than t entative answers to them. In particular , I would like to emphasize the limitations inherent in the study of a single troop, where the blood relations of animals could not be determined (see also Chapter Two, Section II., A. ). In justification of my approach, however, I feel that the social organization and behaviour of free- ranging primates are the result of natural selection acting on individuals through both their physical and their social environments. Moreover, while studies of feeding, ranging, and group composition have provided one perspective from which to view primate societies, I feel that an analysis of social bonding among adults may well provide another.

The prolonged juvenile period between infancy and reproductive maturity is the life history trait that best separates primates from other mammals. Juvenile primates are also the most neglected subjects of primatological research. The principal aim of my study was to examine the behaviour of juveniles and how they compare to older individuals, and in doing so, site this behaviour within the context of a social group of chacma baboons (Papio ursinus). I collected data on a group of baboons in the Soutpansberg Mountains of South Africa over a 19-month period. I took a multi-faceted approach, using data collected though scan samples, focal animal samples, and GPS data to examine age and sex differences in behaviour. I analysed these data using several methods, including methods novel to primatological studies. My results indicate that activity budgets and use of vertical space differ by age and sex. As a consequence of this variation in the time spent engaged in activities, I found that chacma groups exhibit low levels of behavioural synchrony as measured by the Kappa coefficient of agreement. My results also indicate that, despite being part of cohesive group, individuals also differ in their movements through the landscape. Individuals that received more agonism from other group members were found to be more constrained in their movements, travelling shorter, but more tortuous routes. My findings also show that young juveniles position themselves spatially in order to have more neighbours in proximity than older individuals, while social interactions amongst group members exhibit phenotypic assortativity, particularly amongst individuals of similar ages. The behavioural differences found in juveniles relative to older conspecifics arise as a consequence of juveniles’ priorities in not only surviving to adulthood, but also in ensuring future success as adults, with obligate group-living an important factor in the emergence of such differences.

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Understanding the relationship between structure and function is crucial when trying to establish differences between closely related species; such as primates. Muscle architecture from the hindlimbs of great apes was compared, and indicated differences both within and across species. Asymmetry in the musculature of chimpanzees was found to be significant for certain muscle groups; indicating that leg preference for specific tasks may exist within this species. The comparison across the four species studied indicated subtle differences between the orangutan and the other great apes; with longer muscle fascicles, smaller physiological cross-sectional area and angles of pennation. This suggests an adaptation to slow and controlled, wider positional movements, as part of a complex arboreal environment. Muscle architectural variables did not consistently scale allometrically, however, using analysis of covariance to normalise for body mass showed significant differences at the species level. In all great apes, the lower limb tendons varied in their mechanical properties; with a hallucal flexor yielding a higher Young's modulus than tendons associated with muscles of power and balance, suggesting an adaptation to a specific functional role. The plantar aponeurosis was morphologically different across all species studied, with results indicating an adaptation to shear, multi-directional forces in the orangutan foot, possibly reflecting the use of hand assisted bipedalism in an arboreal context, and linear, anteroposterior forces in the gorilla. Overall, this thesis outlines the subtle differences present between closely related species of primates, indicating that morphological adaptations occur in response to external loading during locomotor behaviour.

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This thesis examines factors affecting the welfare of captive primates from a multi- factorial perspective: positional and non-positional behaviour, anatomical adaptations and enclosure usage. Past studies have shown that the provision of naturalistic environments for primates reduces stereotypical behaviours, decreases inactivity (Honess and Marin 2005; Zaragoza et al. 2011), and encourages species- typical positional behaviour repertoires (Jensvold et al. 2001). This suggests that encouraging species-typical behaviour improves captive primate welfare. It was found that reduced occurrence of stereotypical behaviour was associated with enrichment encouraging tool-use, a high fibre diet, and increased social behaviour. Compared to wild gorillas, captive gorillas adopted similar feeding and resting postures but performed substantially less vertical climbing, likely arising from differences in habitat structure and food distribution. It was found that the genus Gorilla has a strong preference for < 20cm diameter and vertical/angled supports, but equally, gorillas have to some extent retained locomotor plasticity as suggested by Myatt et al. (2011) and Neufuss et al. (2014). Thus, from construction of a 3D musculoskeletal model of a hindlimb, it was found that bipedalism was associated with higher moment arms and torque around the hip, knee and ankle (except for extensor torque), than vertical climbing. This indicates that in terms of moment arms and torque, the ability to walk bipedally is not restricted by musculoskeletal adaptations to vertical climbing. It was also found that the gorilla foot had interossei that attached to distal phalanges, which may be important for fine flexion movements for grasping/manipulation of objects. These findings stress the importance of taking into account locomotor restrictions and plasticity when encouraging species-typical behaviour, which has not previously been emphasized. Further, accurate quantification of support availability and preference for enclosure design and positional behaviour studies has not been achieved before. Thus a novel method of studying enclosure usage was developed, via construction and analysis of a computer-aided design model of an enclosure. Besides successful accurate quantification of support preference and availability, the model permitted identification of specific favoured supports/areas and behaviour trends.