The overall purpose of this thesis was to examine the physical aspects of high performance soccer. As such, four interrelated studies were designed to pursue this purpose. Each study was designed to overcome certain distinct methodological limitations of previous science and football (soccer) research and build upon existing research. The research designs for each of the four studies were methodologically different and progressed from previous research design incorporating data collected and analysed from text and internet sources, computerised video-analysis of interactive televised material and combined performance and laboratory assessments. In the following section the purpose of each study included in this thesis is provided and the rationale underpinning the selection of each research design is explained. Study 1: Analysis of Age, Stature, Body Mass, BNH and Quality of Elite Soccer Players from four European Leagues For many sports, there are specific physical characteristics that indicate suitability for, or potential to compete in that sport at the highest level. Various anthropometric characteristics of athletes have been shown to be reasonable predictors for participation at the highest level in sports such as swimming (Ackland et al., 1993), basketball, rugby league and American football (Norton and Olds, 2000). Surprisingly, there is no research available exploring these characteristics in soccer, particularly within the elite European soccer. It might well be that the recent changes in demands in soccer( Williams et al., 1999) PhD Thesis 6 Jonathan R- Bloomfield have been accompanied by physical characteristic changes in soccer players that have been of greater magnitude than that of the normal population. This is an important issue because even small changes in these physical characteristics of players could result in a large reduction in the pool of people to draw from in the general population who have the suitable physical characteristics to be successful in soccer (Olds, 2001). Furthermore, the comparison of players in different leagues and in different positions might provide some valuable information regarding the different demands placed on soccer players in different leagues (Reilly et al, 2000a; Rienzi et al, 2000; Strudwick et al., 2002). It is well documented that different positions in soccer constitute various different demands. Such findings suggest heterogeneity in physical characteristics that might be important for success in particular positions in soccer (Strudwick et al., 2002). The first aim of the present study was to investigate whether there are physical differences (age, stature, body mass, body mass index) between players in different positions in four European soccer leagues. This will also provide information into the diversity in playing style as well as the variation in what is being valued in soccer players in the various countries. This results in valuable information for the adaptation of different physical conditioning regimes as well as implications for talent identification (Fisher and Dean, 1998). The second aim of the present study was to assess the quality of the players of each of the four European leagues by surveying their international status, nationality and FIFA world ranking as well as participation in the FIFA World Cup 2002. This will offer information regarding the actual quality of international players within these leagues which, in turn, provides information about which league would be of the highest quality, differences in playing style and player selection. As the four leading European leagues were selected for analysis, the results provide beneficial information concerning the current status and possible future development of European soccer. Study 2: The 'Bloomfield Movement Classification': Motion Analysis of Individual Soccer Players In close relation with the investigation of the physical characteristics of elite level players, it was also aimed to identify the physical demands of performance. Computerised video-analysis was selected as the most appropriate platform to incorporate a study using the time-motion analysis methodology. This involves the notation of various subjectively or objectively chosen modes of motion which are digitally timed throughout the performance. To date, fewer than 8 modes of motion have often been chosen in time-motion investigation in soccer which arguably does not provide a sufficient degree of specificity to detail the physical demands. A high element of performance specificity must be established to elicit a high degree of transfer from competition into a training regime to optimise competitive performance (Henry, 1968; Barnett et al., 1973; Sale and MacDougall, 1981; Rosenbaum, 1987; Morrissey et al., 1995; Hill et al., 1998). The present study outlined a new approach to time-motion analysis through a method involving a greater depth of detail concerning modes of timed-motion, as well as other non-timed movements, directions, intensities, turning and 'On the Ball' categories. The aim of this study was to present a new methodology and establish reliability. The purpose was to provide a new method to perform a more detailed time-motion analysis study in soccer performance to be used in the third study of this thesis. PhD Thesis 8 Jonathan R. Bloomfield Study 3: Physical Demands of Outfield Positions in FA Premier League Soccer. To elicit an enhancement in soccer performance, it is considered important to analyse the physical demands of match-play (Reilly and Thomas, 1976; All and Farrally, 1991a; Hughes, 2003). Time-motion analysis has been used to investigate these demands. However, many limitations exist with previous research, one of which being the range of classifications used in the collection of data- A high degree of performance specificity is desired to improve coaching practices such as physical conditioning (Barnett et al., 1973). To this end, a new time-motion analysis methodology was designed (see Study 2) and aimed at providing a new level of specificity of performance into the physical demands of high level soccer. Also, the majority of soccer-related time-motion analyses have reported macroscopically with total frequency, total duration or total distance covered providing a summary of the overall physical requirements of soccer. As soccer match-play is essentially an intermittent exercise (Bangsbo, 1994e), it is important to progress the knowledge of the physical nature of the sport and further provide a higher level of specific detail. The aims of the present study were to provide detail regarding intermittent patterns of Purposeful Movement (PM) and Recovery (R), performed by players of three different positions (defender, midfielder and striker), to investigate the reoccurrence of bouts of PM and R within selected time phases and finally provide time-motion analysis of the PM using the BMC. PhD Study 4: Effective Conditioning for Soccer Match-Play The interaction of multiple dynamic physical activities often produces a hybrid of physiological and biomechanical stresses. Higher levels of soccer require increased levels of physical fitness through increased demands from high intensity activity (O'Donoghue et al., 2001; Strudwick and Reffly, 2001; Mohr et al., 2003). Therefore, increased ability to perform complex chains of movement skills (agility) in conjuncture with speed (both acceleration and deceleration) and quickness (overcoming inertia) are relative to high level performance (Withers et al., 1982; Bangsbo, 1992; Reilly, 1994a). This occurs through processes of motor learning and physical conditioning with the rules of specificity and overload as key underlying principles.

No description available.

Exercise has been demonstrated to influence susceptibility to upper respiratory tract infections (URTI) because various aspects of immune function including mucosal immunity are temporarily changed after exercise. Lower concentrations of salivary 19A (s-IgA) as a predominant immunoglobulin and component of saliva or a chronic deficiency in s-IgA have been associated with an increased frequency of URTI episodes. Previous studies of aerobic exercise have incorporated the performance of running or cycling. Responses of s-19A to intermittent exercise patterns as they occur in soccer remain to be resolved. A laboratory based soccerspecific intermittent exercise protocol was used within this thesis to mimic the physiological stress associated with soccer, characterised by highintensity activity as noted during soccer play. The aims of this thesis were to determine the s-IgA responses to a bout or repeated bouts of soccerspecific intermittent exercise and investigate the effects of carbohydrate ingestion on s-IgA when such exercise is performed in increased ambient temperature. Laboratory based soccer-specific intermittent exercise and continuous exercise at the same moderate exercise intensity evoked insufficient stimulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis to modify s-IgA responses. Changes in s-19A and cortisol did not differ between exercise types during or immediately following exercise, or 6 h, 24 h and 48 h afterwards. Physiological responses to intermittent exercise also conforming to the activity pattern of soccer match-play were similar to those for continuous exercise at the same average work-rate, despite the higher perceived exertion during intermittent exercise. Two bouts of soccer-specific intermittent exercise 48 h apart that were designed to provide a repeatable physiological stress comparable to strenuous soccer training induced s-19A responses that were similar following both bouts of exercise. Performing the second bout of exercise did not significantly suppress s-IgA concentration after 48 h recovery although a small progressive reduction in s-19A was observed. Performance of a second soccer-specific exercise bout in one day with a 2.25 h rest in between bouts elicited an increase in heart rate and perceived exertion, compared with a single session at the same time of day, but did not appear to suppress s-IgA outcomes. There was also no difference between responses of s-IgA concentration and secretion rate or salivary cortisol at the different times of day. Soccer can be played under hot environmental conditions and it is thought that addition of carbohydrate to fluids may prevent adverse changes in mucosal immune responses. Carbohydrate supplementation before and at regular intervals whilst performing soccer-specific intermittent exercise at 30°C, did not influence s-IgA responses or salivary cortisol when compared to placebo. In view of the failure of these experimental interventions to discern effects on s-IgA responses, a meta-analysis of the literature was conducted. The meta-analysis revealed an overall elevation in s-IgA concentration post acute exercise and following chronic exercise. In contrast, in term of s-IgA secretion rate, an overall significant decline after both acute and chronic exercise was a consistent finding. In conclusion, one exercise bout or repeated soccer-specific intermittent exercise in the present experiments did not induce compromises in s-IgA responses. There was no adverse effect upon s-IgA responses to intermittent exercise performance under conditions of heat stress with or without carbohydrate treatment. Although, 32 percent of studies included in the meta-analysis have indicated similar results, the disparity with overall findings may arise from differences in the exercise protocols used and/or bias for s-IgA changes in published studies.

Traditionally Physical Education (PE) and sports in secondary schools in the United Kingdom have aimed towards moral goals. Not all of these goals have been well thought through. Where these goals have been systematically developed, they have followed a narrow and prescriptive conception of moral education that mainly focuses on adherence to predetermined rules and principles. From Aristotle we have a less reductive view of moral education - virtue ethics - which revolves around the development of good character as constituted by the "morally" good person. Drawing on group interviews with exceptional teachers and the writings of virtue ethicists, I develop a sketch of a character education programme that is based on talk and reflection (Pincoffs, 1986), and that cultivates the joyful disposition through direct engagement in sporting activities. Outlining what such a character education in PE and sports might look like, I start by exan-ýining what already exists in terms of "moral practices" within sports themselves (MacIntyre, 1985). Sports traditions aim at developing certain sorts of persons. By talking about and reflecting upon what might constitute a good sportsperson with colleagues, teachers can begin to identify for themselves the sorts of persons they want to see playing sports. Part of playing and teaching sports well is learning to discern between the value of different activities and the company of different sorts of persons. By nurturing and developing certain sorts of dispositions over others, teachers can help pupils shape their own involvement and ethical outlook in PE and sports. Through the cultivation of a joyful disposition teachers can help pupils to develop good character and live flourishing lives. This emphasis on joyfulness also brings into sharper focus what has been previously missing in PE and sports policy documents, namely the significance of an emotional engagement in PE and sports when it comes to educating for good character.

Aims: To explore and inform current water immersion recovery practice of high performance athletes; and to compare recovery interventions of 5 minutes cold water immersion, warm water immersion and passive rest, in trained subjects, following intense exercise replicating the demands of game-sports. Methods: Study 1: In a repeated measures design, a measurement approach for use in the evaluation of water immersion efficacy was piloted. The within-day and between-day reliability of surface electromyelography (sEMG), particularly functional wavelet analysis, was evaluated in human lower limb muscles. Functional wavelet analysis provides the opportunity to measure neuromuscular function at the greatest level of detail by differentiating the relative intensity of low and high frequency motor unit recruitment. On 2 consecutive days (Trial 1 & Trial 2), 12 participants performed 3x5 second isometric 80% maximal voluntary contractions (MVC) on a Biodex® dynamometer in each of 150 ankle plantarflexion, 200 knee extension and 200 knee flexion. sEMG was obtained from the medial gastrocnemius (MG), vastis medialis (VM), vastis lateralis (VL) and biceps femoris (BF) muscles. Joint position and force production were controlled. Electrodes remained in situ during each trial. Electrodes were removed upon completion of Trial 1 and replaced in the same position the next day for Trial 2. Simultaneous sEMG metrics for intervals of consistent force production were compared between contractions in Trial 1 and Trial 2 (between-day) and contractions within Trial 2 (within-day). Study 2: 11 trained participants completed the 90 minute Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Test (LIST). Five minutes of COLD water immersion (8.8 ± 0.30C), WARM water immersion (35.1 ± 1.80C) and REST were compared in a repeated measures randomised cross over design. Recovery was evaluated at 2, 4 and 24 hours post exercise using circulating markers of muscle damage, muscle dynamometry, drop jump and repeated single leg hop performance tests and perceived recovery. Study 3: Current water immersion practice of high performance athletes, practice implications stemming from this study’s findings, and the rationale were explored. In a purposive, theoretical sampling approach of expert consultation, 8 professionals advising internationally competing athletes on water immersion recovery practice were provided with a research brief of this project in advance of a scribed, semi-structured interview. Participants were of Sports Coach, Strength & Conditioning Coach and Sports Physiotherapist professions with a minimum of 5 years’ experience working with internationally competing athletes; and differed in international location and sporting disciplines.

Player's performance in competitive matches is partly determined by the systematic training programmes that they complete. The differences in the organisation of training may result in differences in the physiological stress placed on players. This study aimed to investigate the influence of training organisation on the physiological, metabolic and molecular responses to soccer-specific intermittent exercise in skeletal muscles. In Chapter 3, the physical demands of professional soccer training were examined by quantifying the physiological loads and work-rate profiles of elite players throughout the programmed pre-season and in-season training for a one week period. The physiological loads in pre-season were significantly higher than those in the in-season period (p < 0.05). Similar activity profiles were, however, observed during each training period irrespective of the time of the year. These findings demonstrate that pre- season training was more intensive than in-season training though these differences were not linked to changes in the activity patterns during sessions. Technical/tactical training seems to be an important component in increasing the physiological strain observed in pre-season training. This study also indicates that soccer training seems to elicit different demands to those associated with match-play. In Chapter 4, a laboratory-based soccer-specific training simulation (LSSTS) was devised on a motorized treadmill. Attempts were made to re-create both similar overall exercise intensities and patterns of discrete activity observed in training. The validity of this protocol was evaluated by comparing the physiological responses of professional players with those of healthy subjects who completed the LSSTS. Physiological measurements such as mean HR and % of HRmax associated with the simulation were similar to those obtained in the actual training session. These data suggest that the protocol is suitable in re-creating a soccer-specific training session in the laboratory. This protocol is, therefore, sufficient to use in investigations to study the physiological responses and the molecular adaptations of skeletal muscle to soccer-specific intermittent exercise. In Chapter 5, the effect of a single bout of soccer-specific intermittent exercise on metabolic stress and acute molecular responses associated with mitochondrial biogenesis was investigated in human skeletal muscle. The LSSTS was utilised as the sports-specific exercise protocol. The levels of blood metabolites and muscle glycogen were significantly altered during and after exercise (p < 0.05). Simulated soccer-specific training also acutely activated the expression of PGG-1a mRNA in human skeletal muscle (p < 0.05). There was, however, no significant change in the phosphorylation of AMPK and p38MAPK. This would suggest that the global effect of soccer-specific intermittent exercise on aerobic performance may be partly mediated by adaptations associated with mitochondrial biogenesis in skeletal muscle. ' In Chapter 6, the effect of prior soccer-specific training on the physiological, metabolic and molecular responses to a subsequent bout of soccer-specific intermittent exercise was evaluated. Two experimental trials (BETWEEN DA Y trial, one bout of soccer-specific intermittent exercise in a day Vs WITHIN DA Y trial, two consecutive bouts of soccer-specific intermittent exercise performed in a day) were completed on two separate occasions. There were significant increases in physiological responses during the second bout of exercise in the WITHIN DAY trial, compared to those obtained in the, BETWEEN DAY trial (p < 0.05). A more pronounced increase in NEFA and glycerol was observed in the WITHIN DAY trial compared with the BETWEEN DAY trial post-exercise following the second bout of exercise (p < 0.05). The expression of PGC-1a mRNA significantly increased following exercise compared to pre- and post-exercise values. There was, however, no difference in phosphorylation of AMPK and p38MAPK and the expression of PGC-1a mRNA between either trial. Based on these findings, it would seem that different approaches to training organisation may be more important for the acute physiotoqlca: responses to soccer-specific intermittent exercise than the molecular changes underpinning chronic adaptations.

No description available.

This thesis aims to identify physiological and biochemical variables, comparing sex, training status, age and maturity in sub-elite, endurance trained adolescents. Maximal lactate steady state was investigated and the effects of endurance training programmes measured.T he first study assessedth e reliability of absolute running speed, V02, and HR that correspond to the fixed blood lactate reference values of 2.0 and 2.5 mmo1. L"1 and the lactate threshold (LT) and found these measures to be reliable after endurance-trained adolescent runners completed two identical incremental treadmill tests within a 7-10 d period The second study was designed to determine the relationship between physiological variables and endurance running performance in this age group. Track-based, running performance times were available for 18 boys and 14 girls for the 800 m, and 16 boys and 13 girls for the 1500 m. The participants were tested using a step-wise incremental treadmill test and a Wingate anaerobic power test (WAnT) on separate occasions. The results from this study found that for the 1500m, running speeds corresponding to the fixed [BLa ] were a useful measure for assessing performance in endurance trained boys and girls. Unlike previous studies, peak V02 was not a significant physiological predictor of 1500m performance in either boys or girls. For the 1500 m performance in girls the anaerobic measure was no longer significant once variations in size or age had been taken into consideration. Whereas V VO2 peak and running economy may prove to be of some value when considering the 800m for boys, the running speed corresponding to a [BLa ] of 2.5 mmol-L-1 was the only meaningful physiological predictor variable for girls once differences in age and body size had been accounted for. The third study had three main objectives: (1) to identify the exercise intensity that corresponds to the (MLaSS) in adolescent, endurance trained runners, (2) to examine possible between sex differences, and (3) to compare the MLaSS with commonly cited fixed blood lactate reference variables. The participants were first tested using a step-wise incremental treadmill test to establish the blood lactate profile and peak VO 2. The running speed and % peak VO 2 at the MLaSS were not significantly different to those corresponding to the fixed [BL& ] of 2.0 and 2.5 mmol-L-1 (P>0.05). The % HR max at 2.5 mmol-L-1 was also not different to that at the MLaSS, whereas at 2.0 mmol-L-1 it was slightly lower (P<0.05). The running speed, % peak VO 2, and % HR max at the fixed [BLa] of 4.0 mmol-L-1 were significantly higher than those at the MLaSS (P<0.05). In conclusion, it is clear that the MLaSS corresponded to the relatively high exercise intensity in this sample of athletes. It would appear that the running speed, % peak VO 2, and % HR max at the MLaSS lies somewhere between the fixed [BLa ] of 2.0 and 2.5 mmol"L-1. These results confirm earlier work that has suggested a fixed [BLa ] of 2.5 mmol-L-1 may be used with young people' to assess and monitor endurance running performance in place of the more commonly used 4.0 mmol-L-1 that has received so much attention in adult-based studies. The fourth study examined the effect of exercise training on endurance performance, blood lactate profile in relation to running speed (RV) and cardio respiratory function (peak V02) in adolescent runners. This study demonstrated that resting HR, LT and 1 Use of the expression young people is increasingly common since the publication of the text, Young People and Physical Activity by Armstrong and Weisman in 1997. It is used within this document to generically represent the 6 to 18 year age group. 11 RV, HR, V02 and peak V02 at LT were significantly influenced by endurance training. When running time, running velocity and run performance time pre and postintervention were included in the analysis, the intervention did not have a significant effect on peak VO2. When percentage body fat was included as a covariate, there was a positive association with pre and post-training for all groups. The conclusion from these data is that maturity and training both have an effect, especially at supra suggested training levels. The results of the four inter-linked studies support an age-related increase in endurance in aerobic and anaerobic performance and indicated significant differences between boys and girls. From a coaching viewpoint the results reveal that, from the age of 14 to 18 years, runners should be introduced to high intensity training and that changes to the format of middle distance running performance in adolescent competition are recommended.

Ce travail de thèse vise à évaluer le rôle des afférences cutanées plantaires dans le contrôle postural et oculomoteur en manipulant l’extéroception plantaire à l’aide de stimulations mécaniques plantaires fines. La 1ère étude a montré que des éléments médio-plantaires fins externes (EME) et surtout internes (EMI) améliorent la stabilité orthostatique et postériorisent le CPP de sujets jeunes et sains lors de mouvements des yeux. Ils ont aussi une action spécifique sur la vergence (pas sur les saccades) : les EMI augmentent l’amplitude phasique de divergence et diminuent la partie tonique, autrement dit agissent surtout sur la composante pré-programmée du mouvement ; alors que les EME agissent sur la convergence en augmentant son amplitude tonique, composante contrôlée sous influence de la rétroaction visuelle. Les inserts influent de manière directe sur le contrôle postural et oculomoteur par des voies spécifiques et indépendantes. La 2ème étude explique la variabilité des réponses des sujets de la 1ère. Nous avons mesuré leur degré d’utilisation des afférences extéroceptives plantaires par la méthode du Quotient Plantaire (QP = Surface CPP mousse / Surface CPP sol dur X 100). Un QP<100 suggère une Inefficience des Afférences Plantaires (IAP) : les sujets IAP ne présentent plus d’amélioration de leur stabilité ni aucune modification de la vergence avec les inserts plantaires. Nous proposons que cette situation soit non physiologique et relève d’un dysfonctionnement non douloureux latent des récepteurs plantaires, opposant les sujets IAP aux sujets ayant un QP normal. La 3ème étude a investigué les rapports entre l’utilisation des afférences plantaires et visuelles chez de jeunes adultes sains avec la méthode du QP et du Quotient du Romberg (QR). Elle mis en évidence l’existence d’une utilisation synergique des afférences visuelles et plantaires en vision de près, uniquement chez les sujets au QP normal. Les sujets IAP ont un QR plus bas que les sujets au QP normal, en vision de près et sur sol dur uniquement. Sur mousse, leur QR des sujets IAP augmente ; les yeux fermés, leur QP augmente, ce qui objective une asynergie visuo-podale. La 4ème étude, sur la même population, a montré qu’un EME bilatéral augmente l’esophorie, uniquement de loin et chez les sujets IAP. La 5ème étude a révélé l’influence de l’extéroception plantaire sur la perception de la Verticale Visuelle Subjective (VVS) sur la même population. Elle a montré une diminution de l’erreur vers la gauche de près chez les sujets au QP normal avec un EME droit, ainsi qu’une diminution de l’erreur absolue de loin chez les sujets IAP avec un EMI bilatéral. L’ensemble de ces travaux consolide au plan théorique l’importance des afférences plantaires aussi bien pour le contrôle orthostatique, le contrôle de la vergence, la perception de la VVS et l’alignement des yeux (phories). Ils démontrent que l’utilisation de ces afférences est variable selon les sujets et ont des implications cliniques pluridisciplinaires. / This thesis aims at assessing the role of plantar cutaneous afferents in postural and oculomotor control by manipulating plantar exteroception with thin mechanical plantar stimulations. The 1st study showed that lateral, and even more medial mid-foot plantar inserts (LAS / MAS) improve stability in quiet stance and induce a backward shift of the CoP of young healthy subjects during eye movements. They also have a specific action upon vergence (not saccades): MAS increase the phasic amplitude of divergence and decrease its tonic part, in other words they mainly act on the pre-programmed component of the movement; whereas LAS act upon convergence, increasing its tonic amplitude, which is under the influence of visual retroaction. The inserts have a direct influence upon postural and oculomotor control through specific and independent paths. The 2nd study explained the variability of the subjects’ answers of the former. We measured their degree of reliance upon plantar cutaneous afferents with the Plantar Quotient method (PQ = Surface CoP foam / Surface CoP firm gorund X 100). A PQ<100 suggest a Plantar Extercoeptive Inefficency (PEI): PEI subjects do not show any improvement of their stability or any modification of vergence with the inserts. We propose that this situation is non-physiological and results from a non-noxious latent dysfunction of the sole receptors, opposing the PEI subjects to those who have a normal PQ. The 3rd study investigated the relationship between the use of plantar and visual afferents in young healthy subjects with the method of the PQ and Romberg Quotient (RQ). It has evidenced the existence of a synergic use of visual and plantar afferents in close-distance vision, only among normal PQ subjects. The PEI subjects have a significantly lower RQ than the others only at close distance on firm ground. On foam, their RQ increases; eyes closed, their PQ increases, which objectifies a visual-podal asynergy. The 4th study, on the same population, showed that a bilateral LAS increase esophoria only at far distance and among the PEI subjects. The 5th study revealed the influence of plantar exteroception upon the perception of verticality on the same population. It has brought out a decrease of the leftward error at near distance among the normal PQ subjects with a right LAS, and a decrease of the absolute error at far distance among the PEI subjects with a bilateral MAS. Taken together, these studies support, from a theoretical point of view, the importance of plantar afferents for postural control as well as vergence control, SVV estimation and eyes alignment (phorias). They demonstrate that the use of these afferents depends on the subjects and have multidisciplinary clinical implications.