Goal dysregulation theories posit that affective disorders are linked to dysregulation of goal pursuit (e.g. Johnson, Carver, & Fulford, 2010) and many psychological therapies for mood disorders focus on increasing wellbeing by working with individuals to generate and pursue personally meaningful goals. The literature pertaining to goals and mood has identified highly idiosyncratic nomothetic properties of goal pursuit such as perceived goal progress, goal importance and goal effort which all contribute to distinct goal pursuit profiles. For example, perceived goal progress has been linked to positive affect and affective reactions may serve to alter the amount of effort made towards that goal (Carver, Avivi, & Laurenceau, (2008). Gollwitzer (1993) contended that the perceived importance of a person’s goal would influence their level of effort towards that goal. Specifically, it is suggested that the centrality of that goal to a person’s self-concept increases the importance of that goal (Boden, 1973). The importance a person places on their goals may be detrimental if that individual is overly invested in a particular goal and they are not achieving their desired level of progress towards this goal and therefore have increased difficulty in disengaging from their goals despite low goal progress (Lam, Green, Power, & Checkley, 1994; Wrosch, Scheier, Carver, & Schulz, 2003). Additionally, more recent research into Conditional Goal Setting (Street, 2001) posits that those vulnerable to depression are suggested to define their self worth on the achievement of their goals. Although personal goals typically represent sustained activity over time and phenomena such as motivation and mood fluctuate, most of the research on goals and mood has been limited to the use of cross-sectional designs which usually treat them as stable, measuring them at a time point and ask the person to recall retrospectively. This method is suggested to make capturing completely the true nature of a person’s goal pursuit and mood experience in the moment unlikely. Additionally, this approach is susceptible to recall and cognitive biases. Experience Sampling Method (ESM) allows researchers to look at mood from a momentary perspective to examine dynamic and transient emotional reactions. Several studies have used ESM to look at momentary mood and personal goals. To the author’s knowledge, to date, there has been no systematic review of the findings of these studies. Chapter 1 of this thesis details a systematic review conducted with the aim of synthesising the current empirical research concerning goal processes, content and/or cognitions and their relationship to momentary mood using ESM. This systematic review focused only on studies using an Experience Sampling Methodology to look at goal processes and mood. Results from the review found that a range of goal processes and goal cognitions were found to be associated with affective experience and in particular, all studies found that goal progress was linked to experiencing positive affect. The studies identified were from a variety of settings, including universities, business and workplace settings and healthcare settings, with varying participant samples. Studies differed in the terms they used to define goals and how they asked people to generate goals. The quality of these studies varied however as ESM is a developing methodology in research, standard quality assessment tools are not available currently. In an effort to further contribute to the research in this domain, Chapter 2 presents an empirical study examining the relationship between the particular goal cognitions of perceived goal progress and perceived levels of goal effort and their impact on momentary mood through the use of ESM. It is hoped that this will allow not only for highly ecological, real-life assessments of mood and goal cognitions but also an evaluation of the potential impact of Conditional Goal Setting. It was hypothesised that lower perceived momentary goal progress and higher momentary goal effort would be associated with greater momentary mood symptoms in those with higher CGS scores. The findings of this study suggest that negative affect (NA) and positive affect (PA) fluctuated considerably from moment-to-moment over time. ESM captures these within-person fluctuations as well as the between-person differences. Examining momentary mood changes from a goal pursuit perspective found that goal progress and amount of goal effort account for some of the variance in these fluctuations. In particular, results showed that not only does advancement in goal progress predict momentary positive mood, it also predicts decreased negative mood. In addition, perceived goal effort was found to be related to momentary PA and NA in that increased effort led to more NA and less effort led to more PA. A combination of increased goal progress and decreased goal effort predicted increased levels of PA and vice versa for NA. Contrary to expectation, CGS did not predict momentary mood. Extensive previous cross-sectional research has identified this link between goal progress and affective experiences and data from ESM studies sheds further light on the conceptual frameworks surrounding motivation, goal pursuit and mood.

Rumination, a type of repetitive negative thinking, is implicated in the onset and maintenance of adult and youth depression (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008). Whilst experimental studies, key to establishing causality, have shown rumination (in comparison to alternative processing styles including concrete thinking) has a negative effect on cognitive maintaining factors amongst depressed and dysphoric adults, there is a paucity of research with adolescents. Vivid, intrusive memories of autobiographical events are often reported by depressed adults (Brewin et al., 1999). Depressed young people also experience intrusive memories, however, there is little research exploring the nature of these (Meiser-Stedman et al., 2012). Inducing a ruminative processing mode in comparison to distraction resulted in undergraduates rating an intrusive memory as more distressing (Williams & Moulds, 2010). This study aimed to explore the nature of intrusive memories provided by a dysphoric adolescent sample. It then aimed to determine if analytical rumination, in comparison to concrete thinking, impacted on the experience of intrusive memories. High dysphoric adolescents were recruited from a secondary school. They completed the Intrusive Memory Interview and experimental inductions were used to compare the effect of processing styles (rumination vs concrete) on how participants emotionally evaluated their memory. Intrusive memories were experienced frequently in our sample; roughly 1.5 times a week. The memories mainly concerned death/ injury/ illness to a close other, or interpersonal problems. They were experienced as vivid and distressing, with a considerable sense of reliving. The emotions most experienced in relation to the memories were sadness and anger. No significant differences were found regarding memory evaluation between participants in the rumination and concrete conditions. Reasons for these non-significant results are discussed and the need for further research is highlighted. This study is one of very few to explore the experience of intrusive memories in adolescent depression. This study points to the importance of considering intrusive memories in cases of youth depression, and supports the exploration of new avenues regarding the treatment of depression when intrusive memories are present.

No description available.

No description available.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a common developmental disorder typified by deficits in social communication and stereotyped behaviours. Despite evidence of a strong genetic basis to the disorder, molecular studies have thus far had little success in identifying risk variants or other biomarkers, and presently there is no unified pathomechanistic explanation. Monozygotic (MZ) twins show incomplete concordance in autistic traits, which suggests that alternative risk pathways involving non-shared environmental (NSE) factors could also have an important role to play in ASD. In this thesis, we describe microarray and RNA-seq studies characterising gene expression in a sample of 53 ASD MZ twin pairs from TEDS. The overall aims were to: 1) establish convergent evidence for genes and pathways involved in the etiology of ASD comparing affected and unaffected subjects across the sample 2) to identify those responsive to the environment by examining differences within the discordant pairs. We found a number of genes were differentially expressed including DEPDC1B - the most significant finding in cases vs controls, which also showed consistent down regulation within pairs. We further identified IGHG4, IGHG3, IGHV3-66, HSPA8P14, HSPA13, SLC15A2, and found that these results were enriched for transcriptional control, immune, and PI3K/AKT signalling pathways. We suggest that as these were found to be perturbed in the discordant twins, they could represent ASD risk pathways sensitive to the NSE. Next, we investigated integrative genomics methods for performing meta-dimensional analysis using the expression data along with methylation data on the same cohort. After applying regression-based joint analysis methods, and meta-analysis p-value combination methods to our datasets, a number of genes obtained nominal significance across the datasets, including potential genes of interest: NLGN2, UBE3A, OXTR. We suggest these represent genes with evidence for being functionally relevant to ASD.

This thesis had two aims. The first was to investigate variability observed in the profiles of young children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and our ability to predict this variability based on measures in infancy. The second aim was to identify the underlying mechanisms that generate this variability. I combined analyses of clinical data sets and data from computational models to investigate the influences shaping atypical developmental trajectories in ASD. The first aim was addressed using secondary data analysis from a prospective longitudinal dataset, the British Autism Study of Infant Siblings. Clinical, behavioural, and parental report data were collected on 54 infants at risk of ASD (by virtue of having an older sibling with the disorder) and 50 low-risk controls at 7, 14, 24 and 36 months. Chapter 2 investigates whether variability differed at a group level, evaluating whether heterogeneity was exaggerated in highrisk groups versus low-risk controls. Cognitive variability scores distinguished infants with ASD at 36 months. Intra-subject variability was then assessed. A more uneven cognitive profile at 24 months was predictive of lower cognitive abilities at 36 months in high-risk infants overall. In Chapter 3, behavioural measures at 14 months were identified as predictors of diagnostic outcome at 36 months in high-risk infants. Initial results highlighted the importance of environmental factors and social and communicative performance. The predictive power of the subsequent statistical regression equations was validated against recently available data from Phase 2 of the BASIS study, with 125 at-risk infants, demonstrating 71% specificity and 81% sensitivity in predicting ASD characteristics at 24 months. In the second half of the thesis, potential mechanisms generating variability in ASD behavioural profiles were investigated via computational modelling. Thomas, Knowland and Karmiloff-Smith (2011) developed a computational model targeting the regressive sub-type of autism based on the hypothesis that regression could be caused by Over-Pruning of brain connectivity. In Chapter 4, this model is extended to capture other observed developmental trajectories in ASD. Regressive and non-regressive subgroups were identified, and each was reliably distinguished by a distinct pattern of neurocomputational parameters. Regression and early onset of pruning were indicative of poorer developmental outcomes overall. Non-regressive subgroups, both typical and atypical, were then used to investigate response to remediation via behavioural intervention. The simulation work represents the first application of populationlevel models of atypical development to intervention. Small but reliable intervention effects were identified, following a discrete phase of intervention. However, the results indicated a limited scope to intervene, with the greater success using compensatory rather than normalisation techniques. The overall results are discussed with reference to the need for convergent methods to shed light on the constraints shaping atypical developmental trajectories in ASD.

While clients’ expectations are understood to contribute significantly to outcomes in therapy, attempts to understand this contribution have been confusing, and there is a paucity of research on the subject for adults with depression seeking therapy. This is significant given that people with depression are less likely to seek help and have higher rates of pre-therapy attrition compared to people with other presentations. Moreover expectations for therapy are likely to play a role in clients’ early engagement in therapy, which is seen to be a critical phase for improvement. This research provides a qualitative account of the pre-therapy expectations of twelve adults who were on waiting lists to receive psychological therapy for depression. A thematic analysis was carried out on the data obtained from semi-structured interviews which explored participants’ experiences of depression and help-seeking, and their expectations for therapy. The first overarching theme, Therapy – A faint hope, explored the difficulty participants had with envisaging how, and having conviction that, therapy would help them. The overarching theme, Being helped to heal myself, describes how participants sought a sanctuary of acceptance in order to talk about and ultimately self-manage their problems. The final overarching theme, How to deal with my depression, highlights the way participants conceptualised solutions to their depression. A central theme about the prospect for change appears to be mediated by issues of identity, capability and responsibility. The study has implications for how mental health services and practitioners engage with people with depression, and how Counselling Psychology meets its wider obligations to marginalised groups.

No description available.

Epilepsy is a major source of disability amongst all age groups. Most epilepsies are well controlled on antiepileptic drugs. However, significant proportions of patients are not controlled on medical treatment and may be successfully treated with resective surgery. Unfortunately, as many as 30% of patients remain with disabling seizures after resective surgery. In the present thesis I aim at identifying seizure onset patterns on intracranial EEG that are predictors of surgical outcome. Methods: I have studied all patients operated after intracranial recordings implantation between 1999 and 2010 with a follow up period longer than 1 year. I identified the first, the second ictal patterns and the presence of preceding epileptiform discharges, and correlated their presence with surgical outcome. As the initial pattern was bilateral in 33% of patients, I used single pulse electrical stimulation (SPES) to identify bilateral connections that could be responsible for bilateral changes at seizure onset. Results: Focal fast activity as first ictal pattern was associated with favourable outcome. Diffuse electrodecremental event as first ictal pattern was associated with poor outcome. A preceding focal, widespread or bilateral epileptiform discharge was not associated with neither favourable nor poor outcome. As second ictal pattern, fast activity was associated with poor outcome whereas diffuse electrodecremental event with good outcome. Delayed second ictal patterns (≥10sec) appear to be associated with good outcome in temporal lobe epilepsy. Hippocampus and amygdala have a low incidence of contralateral connections (5.0%). Fusiform gyrus showed the highest incidence of contralateral functional connections (≤7.1%). Bi-temporal connectivity is related neither to bilateral seizure onset nor postsurgical outcome. Conclusion: The prognostic value of ictal patterns depends where they occur during seizure evolution. Early bilateral changes at seizure onset cannot solely be explained by functional bilateral connections.

This thesis explored emotion recognition and emotion expression in people with anorexia nervosa (AN) and bulimia nervosa (AN), compared to a matched healthy control group. It includes a set of distinct, but interrelated studies, which are described in two chapters, one for emotion recognition, and one for emotion expression. The broad hypothesis was that participants with eating disorders (ED) were less accurate recognising emotions and less facially expressive than HC. Studies investigating emotion recognition: Study 3.1 evaluated the ability to recognise emotions in blended facial expressions in adult women with AN (n=35), compared to HC (n=42). Participants with AN showed difficulties recognising disgust, and a preference to label non-angry facial expressions as anger. Study 3.2 assessed emotion recognition through body movement in adolescents and adults with AN (n=97), compared to HC (n=96). Results indicated that participants with AN had difficulties recognising sadness, often misinterpreting it as a neutral emotion. Adolescent participants with AN had worse performance. Study 3.3 investigated emotion recognition from facial expression and body movement in women with BN (n=26), compared to HC (n=42). Findings were similar to those of study 3.1, with BN participants having difficulties in disgust recognition, and showing a bias towards anger. Studies investigating emotion expression: Study 4.1 assessed facial expressions of positive emotions in people with AN (n=20), BN (n=20), and HC (n=20), through an examination of the Duchenne smile expressed in response to a humorous film clip. The study results showed a reduced facial expression of positive emotions in people with AN. Study 4.2 investigated facial expression of negative emotions in people with AN (n=20) and BN (n=20) compared to HC (n=20), by looking at expressions of sadness and other negative emotions in response to a sad film clip. There was no evidence of reduced facial expression in the ED group. Study 4.3 explored the ability to deliberately generate (i.e. pose) and imitate facial expressions of emotions in a group of participants with AN (n=36), BN (n=25), and HC (n=42). Results revealed that both ED groups were less accurate than the HC group at posing facial expressions of emotions, and participants with AN had difficulties imitating facial expressions of emotions. Overall, the findings provide evidence of difficulties in emotion processing in people with ED, especially reduced facial expression of emotion. The findings suggest that emotion recognition is more preserved, but there might be specific problems in the processing of disgust and anger. In general, participants with AN had more difficulties than those with BN. The thesis findings provide support for emotional maintenance models of ED, and may inform the development of future treatments.