Creativity has mostly been studied within environments that are supportive of creative performance. However, there is a growing awareness that professions which conventional wisdom presumes have little capability for creative thinking, increasingly require creativity to address challenges arising from ever-more complex and ambiguous work challenges. This research selected the audit and consulting sub-cultures within the Saudi Arabian accounting services sector, to further our knowledge about creativity and to develop a model for creative performance in environments offering different levels of encouragement for creative behaviours. The model, integrating earlier work on creativity, leadership, intrinsic motivation and team factors, was supported by a preliminary study, and operationalised in a design which offered scope for testing prevailing conceptual assumptions (quantitative self-reports) and for developing emerging, contextual ones (semi-structured interviews). The study confirmed the broad predictions derived from the literature, while revealing contextual nuances. The professionals within the consulting sub-culture showed selfreports of intrinsically motivated creative behaviours, transformational leadership, and a range of supportive team factors. In contrast, professionals with similar educational backgrounds in the accounting sub-culture largely denied the need for creativity, and indicated that regulatory constraints. minimised the opportunities for the generation and implementation for novel work-related ideas. Within this culture, an emergent theme, centred around the concept of 'sense a/work', . helps provide an understanding of how professionals who deny creativity explain their effective functioning in increasingly complex and turbulent environments. We suggest that 'sense of work' is primarily focussed within the task, and deals with knowledge management, and that a sense of creativity could b~ of complementary value, particularly if it focussed outside the regulated dimensions of the professional work, and dealt with knowledge generation. In addition, this study highlights the potential benefits of training and development for raising creativity, even within strictly regulated professional functions. The concept of adaptive or incremental creativity is introduced, offering prospects for reconciling the. prevailing cultural beliefs with acknowledgement of the need for a sense of creativity. The study also provided evidence that self-reports of leadership in these environments may be particularly biased by a tendency for professionals to avoid criticising their direct managers, and instead substituting reports oft~eir perceived ideal leaders.

The aim of this thesis is to investigate companies' choices in financial reporting. This research first identifies that regimes and techniques are a firm's two major accounting choices. It then establishes that a two-stage choice model of regimes and techniques is appropriate for choices of this sort. The thesis investigates the nature of regime choices and technique choices and the relationship between them. Furthermore, this study recognises three choice patterns in the two-stage choice model: two types of sequential choices and a nested choice. Lexicographic and colexicographic preference orderings can be used to understand the two sequential decision-making processes. The nested choice can be regarded as a simultaneous process. Interview data shows these forms of choice behaviour. The empirical basis of this study applies a stated preference approach to estimate companies' adoption costs (C) and benefits (B) of accounting modes. Primary source data on net benefits was gathered from companies in the UK and Taiwan by questionnaires and face-to-face interviews. The analysis of this research implies that the stated costs (C) and benefits (B) reflect companies' rationale behind accounting choices. Thus, the usefulness of the stated preference approach for understanding regime and technique choices is established. Using measured stated costs and benefits, this research calibrates firms' net utilities (B-C) and ratio utilities (B/C) arising from adopting a specific regime or technique from the choices available. It is observed that companies' accounting decisions generally follow a rational net-benefit analysis, given free choices. That is, companies typically select that accounting mode which leads to the highest adoption net-utilities. These findings suggest that the cost-benefit analysis, based on stated preferences, helps our understanding of firms' choice behaviour in financial reporting. The results of nonparametric tests also indicate that UK and Taiwanese companies often do not perceive any net benefits from implementing IFRS.

The focus of this thesis is to study corporate environmental accounting in Nigeria, specifically analysing how corporate environmental issues (CEIs) are accounted for in the Nigerian cement industry. Environmental pollution arising from corporate operations has been a major concern among transnational organisations (e.g. World Bank, IMF), governments, policymakers and society. Over the past two or more decades, environmental issues have taken on a more significant role in business decisions, corporate planning and global politics (Boutros-Ghali, 1992; Gray et al., 2014). Environmental issues have certainly deserved attention from academia so that research could be undertaken to understand and address the problems (see Freeman, 1984; Strong, 1992; Callan and Thomas, 2000; Darabaris, 2008). There have been various pieces of research on corporate environmental accounting, however their focus has principally been on issues in developed countries (e.g. Buhr and Freedman, 1996; O’Dwyer, 2005; Gray 2010). Developing and emerging economies are in fact creating significant amounts of environmental pollution on a daily basis due to their industrial development (UNEP, 2011; World Bank, 2014; WHO, 2014). Among others, Nigeria has been identified as one such country, with a high level of environmental pollution that contributes significantly to global environmental problems (Adeoti, 2001; UNEP, 2011; Yale, 2012). In the same vein, corporations in Nigeria have been found to be a key contributor for this problem. While corporations should be held accountable for their impacts on the environment, the political, economic and social context in Nigeria have all made corporate environmental accounting a challenge to be achieved. This highlights the need for more research in this area in order to enhance our knowledge on corporate environmental accounting issues in a developing country such as Nigeria, as well as potentially to initiate discussions on how to resolve corporate environmental problems. Most studies in Nigeria have looked at the impacts of environmental issues with no research focused on the management and reporting of environmental issues by corporations in the country and in particular, the cement industry (up to the time when this thesis was written). Therefore, this thesis examined how corporations in particular cement companies have been managing, accounting and reporting environmental issues generated by their operational activities in Nigeria. In order to achieve the purpose of the thesis, it has been necessary to adopt a subjectivity ontology and interpretive epistemology, which entails the use of qualitative perspectives. The study chose a case study approach (two companies were selected to be the case studies) and collected empirical data using a combination of semi-structured interviews, visual techniques and documentary analysis. Unlike most studies in Nigeria that have used the survey questionnaire approach (Owolabi, 2008; Ngwakwe, 2009; Oba et al., 2012; Hassan and Kouhy, 2013), this thesis will provide a more insightful qualitative view on corporate environmental accounting practices in Nigeria. The study also relied on convergent institutional and resource dependence theories as conceptualised by Oliver (1991) to provide a better understanding of CEIs management and reporting in the two chosen cases in particular and Nigeria as whole. The research found that the cement industry was a key environmental polluter in Nigeria, and that companies were under pressure from a number of agents to reduce environmental pollution. It further showed that environmental accountability practices in the Nigerian cement sector are largely influenced by the external institutional environment/factors, and that environmental accountability practices have become more a means of ensuring legitimacy with no significant impact on the wellbeing of citizens and the environment. It also demonstrated that the case studies adopted certain strategies in confronting the challenges from external institutions. Finally, the study contributes to the existing literature on social and environmental accounting research, especially from an emerging countries perspective. The findings from the research will also have theoretical and practical policy implications in Nigeria and the world at large.

Statutory audit markets across the EU have recently been reformed, with new Regulation on the Statutory Audits of Public Interest Entities coming into force in June 2016. The Regulation imposes stricter requirements on the audits of Public Interest Entities, as originally defined in the Statutory Audit Directive 2006, with the option for Member States to designate additional entities as public interest. Thus, the exact definition of a Public Interest Entity applied varies across Member States. In the UK the definition has not been widely extended and includes listed firms, credit institutions, and insurance undertakings. Private firms in the UK are therefore currently exempt from the more stringent audit regulations. However, even based on the limited, and often mixed, evidence for the private company audit market, the decision to preclude most private companies from the definition of a Public Interest Entity, effectively excluding them from the new audit reforms, may not be appropriate. This thesis, therefore, undertakes a comprehensive analysis of the UK audit market for private companies, in addition to examining the auditing choices of private companies and the economic consequences of these choices. The UK is specifically examined because it is one of a number of countries that have chosen not to extend the scope of the definition of a Public Interest Entity beyond the one set at the EU level. The findings of this research show that, similar to the audit market for listed firms, the private company audit market in the UK is segmented with Big Four dominance among the largest firms and relatively low levels of auditor switching. As a result of this audit environment, private companies that do switch auditor are found to experience economic consequences in terms of a reduction in their credit ratings. Particularly when the reasons for a switch are unknown to investors. In addition, the thesis provides evidence to suggest that following an auditor switch, firms receive both physical and implicit discounts on their audit fees, with price recovery of these discounts over the following three years. Suggesting that low-balling is also present in this audit market, which in turn raises concerns regarding competitive pricing and levels of auditor independence. In sum, the results of the thesis provide strong support that the definition and scope of a Public Interest Entity needs revisiting both within the UK and across all EU Member States. Moreover, it reinforces the idea of extending some of the more stringent audit requirements introduced by the EU Regulation on the Statutory Audits of Public Interest Entities, to ensure that economically important private firms have sufficient oversight.

This research examines how political connectedness influences the corporate governance disclosure practices of listed companies. The research also explores the process of preparation of annual reports and seeks explanations on decision making, regarding the level and nature of corporate governance disclosure. This research uses annual report data from companies listed on the Karachi Stock Exchange from 2009-2013. The research utilises qualitative content analysis for the study of the disclosure practices of politically connected and non-connected firms. An in-depth analysis of silence has been conducted focusing on the incidence of the lack of information on corporate governance. Furthermore, semi-structured interviews have been conducted in order to seek deeper insights into the research phenomena and the triangulation of findings. The findings of the qualitative content analysis indicate that non-connected firms disclose a higher level of voluntary, as well as mandatory corporate governance information, in comparison with politically connected firms. However, the variation in the level of voluntary disclosure is found to be higher when compared with mandatory disclosure. The results of the analysis of silence indicate that politically connected firms stay silent on a diverse range of voluntary disclosure items and provide notably limited disclosure. The findings of interview data analysis are consistent with the findings of qualitative content analysis and the analysis of silence in annual reports. To make sense of the findings the research has called upon the dual perspectives offered by agency theory and rational choice institutionalism. In assessing the implications of disclosure/non-disclosure practices it is found that the decision to disclose information is driven by the self-interest and opportunism of politically connected members of the board who avoid voluntary disclosure of information. However, it is also found that rationality plays an important role and while the firms are operating in a tight regulatory environment, politically connected firms provide better mandatory disclosure.

The information systems (IS) audit in public sector organisations is generally conducted to provide assurance about the effectiveness of IS controls, processes, resources, operations, and value for money in the IS investment. Public sector organisations are being confronted with various new demands from businesses, the public and other stakeholders because of the high level of IS investment, which takes long to complete and involves uncertainty of performance. This research argues that the current IS audit practice does not take a broad enough view in assessing the overall system. Hence, it is particularly challenging for an IS auditor not only to identify how well the IS supports the overall business objectives, but also to justify the continuity of IS operation and to produce an effective IS audit report. There have been several cases in which IS were unsuccessful and did not perform as the users expected. Due to the current IS audit practice, IS auditors are unable to recognise any inherent limitations that may exist in the design, development and implementation of application systems that will impact on the organisation’s objectives and operational activities. Sustainability is a relevant and practical way to deal with limitations found in IS audit practice. Sustainability is future oriented and concerned with holistic and integrated systems consisting of humans, nature, social and technology infrastructure. This research is conducted with the goal of incorporating sustainability within the IS audit framework as a strategy to minimise IS control risk, to reduce inherent risks faced by the IS auditors and to produce effective IS audit reports. This research found that the proposed framework known as the Sustainability Driven Information System Audit (SISA) is an appropriate alternative that can overcome these shortcomings, and effectively address risks associated with IS controls. SISA is also considered to reduce uncertainties in decision making by reviewing results, processes and input. It facilitates coordination and communication to produce an audit report that provides effective value to the key stakeholders and the public. This research also studies the appropriate method for IS auditors to make audit judgements, particularly in measuring IS controls. The applicability of the SISA framework to a real case study has been found to be very promising. The result showed that a systematic and numerical approach is suitable for prioritising audit criteria and in order to emphasise the key areas of concern for the audit purpose. The results indicate that the sustainability approach is a practical and reasonable method that can be employed at any public sector organisation. This research contributes theoretically, methodologically and practically to the IS audit body of knowledge.

International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) and International Standards on Auditing (ISA) have gained significant momentum following the market failures and negative global externalities that occurred during the two major financial crises of the last decade. In tackling the macroeconomic instabilities generated by the Asian financial crisis of 1997-98 and the effects of the credit crunch of the global credit crisis of 2007-09, the international financial community has actively promoted the development and reliance on a set of twelve international standards to strengthen international financial regulation for complementing market fundamentalism. Out of the twelve international standards, IFRS and ISA have emerged as significant regulatory tools in the search for 'transparency' as global solutions to financial crises and facilitating, through the supporting structures of a New International Financial Architecture (NIFA), the maintenance of international financial stability. Along with the global momentum of committing to IFRS and ISA, the existing literature has emphasized the notions of 'implementation and enforcement' as being crucial for the ultimate success of proper 'compliance' with such international standards. Nonetheless, there remain considerable knowledge gaps in terms of the processes that have facilitated the rise of IFRS and ISA, and their global promotion in the NIFA; and the skills and knowledge required for effective implementation of IFRS and ISA. Such knowledge gaps have motivated this research study of the Accounting and Auditing (A&A) module of the World Bank's Reports on the Observance of Standards and Codes (ROSC) program, an initiative that has sought to advocate and facilitate the global adoption and implementation of IFRS and ISA. Through applying the economic concept of market failure, this research project seeks to enhance knowledge of the ways in which the ROSC program has emerged as a significant component of the NIFA. The combined theoretical and empirical analysis illuminates the 'quasi-governmental body' role of the World Bank's ROSC A&A module in promoting IFRS and ISA as global public goods and, through its work with professional accountancy bodies (operating in a private capacity), in providing the national public good of 'knowledge' for vital processes of capacity-building in low-capacity jurisdictions. In developing understanding of the advocacy, implementation and enforcement of IFRS and ISA in international financial regulatory circles, the thesis provides evidence contrary to the rather general criticisms of the overall ROSC program as being wholly driven by the 'homogenization or globalization of international standards' and challenges the claimed dominance, in the existing literature of a 'one-size-fits-all' regulatory model.

This thesis explores the mediating role of technologies within the initial professional development (IPD) competency assessment environment of aspiring professional accountants. It proposes that professional competency is transient, ambiguous and complex. Professional competency is conceptualised a set of morally orienting practices, understandings and personal characteristics. The study establishes that professional competency is currently assessed via several different specific structures and contexts. These contexts are conceptualised using Nardi & O’Day’s (1999) concept of information ecology, which is mediated by assessees, assessors, evidence & technologies. One of the specific structures within the information ecology is the ‘profession context.’ It is here that professional accounting operates. There are also broader corporate structures operating within which accountancy is integrated with other organisation functions. Broader still, are the social contexts in which corporations themselves operate. Although these contexts cannot be artificially separated, the thesis proposes that professional accounting bodies should take control of the ‘profession context.’ It is proposed that verifiable evidence should be assessed within the profession context to “corroborate” assertions of competency made by assessees/assessors. The mediating role of technology within the information ecology is often dynamic, emotive and sensory and moves between hermeneutic, embodiment and alterity relations. The inter-relations of technology with agents within the information ecology are often recursive, but nonetheless often involve a negotiation of power. The mediation of technology within the information ecology enables the integration of simulated and real assessment environments within which verifiable evidence can be constructed. This approach advocates that successful accomplishment of performance is determined using responsible pedagogy principles. This means the development of critical thinking, education and self-awareness through assessment that is authentic and action based. The purpose of this approach is to develop aspiring professional accountants who embody the behaviours, attitudes, values, dispositions expected of responsible, respectful professionals who protect the public interest.

It is more than a decade that the way of organising the bookkeeping function through the shared services model has been widely adopted by organisations. Large multinational companies usually offshore bookkeeping activities to shared services centres (SSCs), established in cheaper locations. However, a phenomenon of SSC bookkeeping is relatively a black-box in academia. Academic literature on bookkeeping practices in recent times, as well as bookkeepers involved, is scarce. In particular, there is a widely held view that activities constituted by this supporting function in this age of advanced computerisation are ‘simplified’ and ‘low-skilled’. Therefore, this thesis explores this relatively-neglected (but important) area in accountancy, with the purpose to enhance understanding of the extent of simplification and deskilling of SSC bookkeeping. By conducting an interpretivist case-study of a SSC in South East Asia, owned by a large European airline, a new perspective on bookkeeping practices is offered. The thesis, theoretically informed by an ‘institutional’ lens of Burns and Scapens (2000), supplemented with a view of new institutional sociology, argues that SSC bookkeeping is not a low-skilled and simple practice, and that there is an incongruence between the widely held perception of simplified bookkeeping and the actual complex nature of (in particular, SSC) bookkeeping practices. Also, this thesis illuminates that the beancounter image does not capture characteristics of bookkeepers in the SSC who are shaped to be mindful, active, adaptive, and socialised. Furthermore, the case study enables us to see the way the bookkeeping function can play an active and influential role, when being a ‘core’ function in the SSC. Indeed, knowledge created by this thesis is original and interesting, since it challenges the widely held perception. Moreover, grounded on the empirical evidence, contributions to Burns and Scapens (2000) and organisational routines research are proposed.

This PhD thesis examines two empirical issues. Firstly, the study examines the effects of industry specialist auditors and corporate governance on audit quality. Secondly, the study investigates the effects of industry specialist auditors and corporate governance on earnings quality. These two empirical research questions are examined under three different level of analysis for auditor industry specialisation: 1) the firm national-city framework, 2) the partner national-city framework, and 3) the joint firm-partner national-city framework. The corporate governance characteristics examined in this thesis are female directorship, foreign directorship, internal audit function, and audit committee characteristics relating to size, independence, expertise and activity. Audit quality in this study, is measured by the variation in the level of audit effort, as reflected in audit fees. The earnings quality measures examined in this study are the client’s level of discretionary accruals, accrual estimation error and likelihood of reporting a profit (or avoiding a loss). The study’s sample includes initially all companies listed in the London Stock Exchange (LSE) between 2008 and 2011. The findings from the first empirical study suggest that the audit partner industry leadership at the national level drives the fee premium for auditor industry specialisation in the U.K., above and beyond the audit firm industry leadership. Nevertheless, the evidence that non-industry leading partners within the industry leading audit firms are still able to charge a fee premium indicates that some form of knowledge sharing and transfer of industry expertise do exists between the partners within the Big 4 audit firms. In addition, the results also suggests that foreign directors and active audit committee demand additional and extensive audit effort from their auditor in order to certify their monitoring function, resulting in the charging of higher audit fees. Next, the findings from the second empirical enquiry suggest that audit firm industry leadership plays a more important role than audit partner industry leadership in promoting higher earnings quality, as evidenced by lower discretionary accruals, lower accrual estimation error and lower likelihood of reporting a profit. In addition, the study also finds that the female directors, audit committee independence, and audit committee’s accounting or financial expertise contribute to accruals manipulation. This finding is interesting given the data is tested in the period during and following on the 2007/2008 global financial crisis, suggesting that some corporate governance mechanisms may be less effective in constraining earnings management, but somehow the effect is moderated by the presence and the role of industry specialist auditors. Overall, the empirical findings on auditor industry specialisation seem to support the product differentiation theory, given the consistent evidence between fee premium and higher earnings quality offered by industry specialist auditors. The findings from the corporate governance analyses are consistent with the institutional theory and/or the managerial hegemony theory, as the role of board is viewed to be passive and more of ceremonial in nature during the sample period investigated. The thesis’s findings are of potential interest to policy makers, practitioners and investors as the issues relating to audit quality, earnings quality and corporate governance are pertinent for investor protection in the financial market.