The primary contribution of the thesis is to propose the idea of collaboration from self efforts and social efforts to promote well-being in the research area of income inequality. The literature merely concerns the effect of income inequality on well-being based on social efforts which reflect on the measurement of income inequality according to social comparison. The thesis argues that this unilateral examination is unable to achieve coherence and unity between theory and empirical structure with respect to individual well-being and its corresponding statistical evidence is likely biased. Hence, the thesis introduces the new two-effort framework which enables a comprehensive and fair evaluation of social efforts such as government assistance and action on the issue of inequality. Through the application of such an idea into the analysis of China’s income inequality, the thesis has the following unprejudiced conclusions. China’s economy has retained strong growth over the past decades. Yet, the road to relieve the parallel outcome of rising income inequality from the robust growth is not optimistic. There is appreciable government policy on living standards in the short run but unfortunately, sustainable government intervention is scarce. This claim is drawn from three investigations of inequality by: i) examining the returns on social efforts and self efforts with respect to income inequality on living standards; ii) the influence of economic opportunity and security on individual income inequality; and iii), a case study of social efforts, government policy, particularly focusing on residential electricity pricing on household life burden.

This research seeks to identify and evaluate the influences of the ‘personal characteristics’ and ‘attitudinal behaviour’ of Black African and Caribbean Entrepreneurs (BACEs) in London when seeking finance and business support from banks and other external agencies. The reason for this choice of research was to try and understand whether some of the personal characteristics of BACEs had an influence on the barriers they often reported when accessing business finance from formal sources in London, notably High Street banks. In particular, this research examines the influences of different aspects of human and social capital, cultural factors and generational differences on the attitudes of BACEs when seeking external business finance. The empirical research coincided with the onset of the ‘credit crunch’ and the tightening of credit rationing by the banks, so that BACE experiences of accessing finance need to be considered in this context. The use of mixed data sources including both quantitative and qualitative data adds a new and original dimension to this study. Thirty (30) purposely selected BACEs, five (5) main High Street banks, six (6) enterprise agencies and one (1) public sector organisation were interviewed over a two and a half year period. The field work involved in-depth interviews to obtain information from the respondent BACE owner managers. The quantitative dimension involved analysis of the London Annual Business Survey (LABS) dataset to compare the experiences of BACEs in accessing finance with those of other ethnic businesses. This study found that the ‘attitudinal tendencies’ and behaviour of BACEs were closely related to their levels and types of human capital attainment. Results also suggested that the ‘cultural orientation’ of BACEs and their concentration in certain communities described as ‘ethnic enclaves’ were significant factors influencing their behaviour and attitudes when seeking finance and dealing with mainstream business support services. The views of some of the BACEs about discriminatory practices by banks can be largely attributed to their ‘perceptions’ and ‘self-imaging’ as little empirical evidence was found to support such claims. The lack of data on BACEs is a problem which requires attention by policy-makers if the myths around perceptions are to be managed. Many of the challenges of BACEs reported in research are submerged within data relating to SMEs as a whole, thereby making it difficult to focus on the particular needs of BACEs. This research found that a small but significant number of interviewed BACEs considered themselves to be the subject of ‘discrimination’. However, these attitudes could be largely attributed to various ‘human capital’ shortcomings. Some respondents may be also using the alleged discrimination to mask their own business failures. The thesis makes recommendations for improved re-engagement between the three principal agents and areas for future research are highlighted in the concluding chapter. Some of the main recommendations are geared towards fostering a better understanding and relationships between BACEs and finance providers as well as the need to promote good practices. The need for developing a database for Black businesses is long overdue.

This thesis attempted to provide a rich and robust understanding of how women’s work–life choices are influenced and shaped by the socio-cultural context of Pakistani society. It also illuminated the role of human agency in making work–life choices. Recently, women’s entrepreneurship has gained wide recognition in research in both developed and developing countries. However, critical analysis of the existing literature highlighted the failure of research in women’s entrepreneurship to recognise the context in which women’s entrepreneurship is embedded (deBruin et al., 2007; Blackburn and Kovalainen, 2009; Welter, 2010). Moreover, the majority of the research was conducted in Anglo-Saxon countries that may not appropriately reflect the true nature of women’s entrepreneurship in the context of developing countries (Gracia and Brush, 2012; Jamali, 2009). As a result there are emerging calls for more research stemming from developing countries (Brush et al., 2009; Jamali, 2009) based on a more explanatory mechanism by including subjective experiences, which may represent a unique set of factors that impinge on a woman’s work–life choices. It is precisely in this context that the present research concentrated on exploring women entrepreneurs’ experiences of managing work and family within the social structures of Pakistan. This study provided insight into how women talk about and experience work and family by including their subjective perspectives. Concisely, the research explored the various ways in which women’s choices of work–life are socially embedded (context specific).

This study develops and empirically tests a model of tourism destination image in different periods of time, namely in the pre/post-visit (measuring the tourist satisfaction) and the peak/off-peak (exploring the seasonality factor). It is applied to the UK market visiting the Algarve as a tourism destination. Its aim is to contribute towards a better conceptualization of destination branding and competitiveness practices. The existence of a gap in the literature related to the field of destination marketing strategies based on knowledge of destination images was the starting point for this research. This knowledge can improve the efficient allocation of resources, particularly in the context of increasing destination competitiveness and travellers’ limitations in terms of time and money. To empirically test the model, the research applies a mixed-methods approach based on semi-structured interviews conducted with tourist stakeholders within the Algarve and questionnaires applied to tourists who visit the destination. The findings suggest that the Algarve’s image tends to be differentiated in the pre/post-visit and in the peak/off-peak, which result in establishing important aspects to distinguish the marketing strategies. The segments of the first-time and the repeaters have different preferences and characteristics regarding the type of accommodation chosen, the return intention and age profile. The Algarve image modifications are connected with the type of booking the visitors opt to make the reservation, the return intentions, the willingness to recommend the Algarve to friends and relatives and if it is the first or repeat-visit. Generally, tourists do not recognise “administrative boundaries” but rather the entire destination of the Algarve. As a consequence, the competitiveness and branding approach to the region should be global, as defended in the literature. The results are considered an on-going process, where the stakeholders must be continuously involved due to the importance of their opinion to identify the main strengths and weaknesses of the Algarve as a tourism destination.

The main contributions of this dissertation are the design, development and application of optimisation methodology, models and algorithms for large-scale problems arising in Operations Management. The first chapter introduces constraint transformations and valid inequalities that enhance the performance of column generation and Lagrange relaxation. I establish theoretical connections with dual-space reduction techniques and develop a novel algorithm that combines Lagrange relaxation and column generation. This algorithm is embedded in a branch-and-price scheme, which combines large neighbourhood and local search to generate upper bounds. Computational experiments on capacitated lot sizing show significant improvements over existing methodologies. The second chapter introduces a Horizon-Decomposition approach that partitions the problem horizon in contiguous intervals. In this way, subproblems identical to the original problem but of smaller size are created. The size of the master problem and the subproblems are regulated via two scalar parameters, giving rise to a family of reformulations. I investigate the efficiency of alternative parameter configurations empirically. Computational experiments on capacitated lot sizing demonstrate superior performance against commercial solvers. Finally, extensions to generic mathematical programs are presented. The final chapter shows how large-scale optimisation methods can be applied to complex operational problems, and presents a modelling framework for scheduling the transhipment operations of the Noble Group, a global supply chain manager of energy products. I focus on coal operations, where coal is transported from mines to vessels using barges and floating cranes. Noble pay millions of dollars in penalties for delays, and for additional resources hired to minimize the impact of delays. A combination of column generation and dedicated heuristics reduces the cost of penalties and additional resources, and improves the efficiency of the operations. Noble currently use the developed framework, and report significant savings attributed to it.

This thesis investigates empirically the determinants of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) into countries of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. The empirical analysis of this thesis conducted at three different levels, intra-regional level, country-level and firm-level. Chapter five investigates FDI determinants between MENA countries using a gravity model with fixed effects included in the model. The results indicate that traditional gravity factors play important roles in explaining the level of FDI between MENA countries. The effects of geographical distance, common borders and bilateral investment treaties are particularly relevant to FDI within the region, suggesting that bilateral FDI flows tend to be larger between neighbours, having already established bilateral investment treaties agreements. The results also show that FDI inflows differ between MENA countries according to their economic and institutional structure. Resource-rich countries on average receive less FDI compared resource-poor countries in the region. Furthermore, FDI to resource-poor countries found to responds negatively to the availability of natural resource, and positively to the quality of institutions, opposite to the case of the resource-rich countries. Chapter six investigates the determinants of FDI into MENA and developing countries. The empirical analysis of this chapter aimed to answer the question of whether determinants of FDI in developing countries affect MENA countries differently. The results indicate that a MENA country receive on average 1.21 percent less FDI than a non-MENA country, and that the natural resources have a direct negative effect on FDI to MENA countries even after controlling for the necessary factors for both MENA and developing countries. The marginal effects of return on investment, quality of infrastructure and macroeconomic instability on FDI were found to be less for a MENA country compared to a non-MENA country. The results also show that qualities of institutions in MENA countries are negatively affected by the presence of natural resource in these countries (resource curse effects). Unlike other developing countries, the interaction between natural resource and institutions in MENA region found to have adverse effect on FDI. Chapter seven investigates the effect of FDI and business environment constraints on the performance of firms in three MENA countries, Egypt, Morocco and Turkey using firm-level data. The results indicate that foreign ownership has positive significant impact on performance of firms in the three selected MENA countries. The results also show that performance of firms in the three MENA countries hindered by the constraints of business environments in these countries. Education of labor, access to finance, electricity outages obstacles and corruption were all found to have negative effects on the growth and performance of firms. The results also indicate that performance of firms differ across countries and industries. A comparison in term of firms’ performance indicate that on average, textiles and garments firms in Egypt have less comparative advantage in their productivity per worker than firms in Turkey and Morocco.

The aim of this research has 3 main objectives. The first objective is to examine the determinants of foreign direct investment (FDI) into Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). This further to investigate how SSA countries compare in their FDI determinants with other countries from the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). These are the two least recipient regions of global FDI. The second objective is to examine the determinants of firm performance in SSA manufacturing firms with respect to market structure and foreign ownership. The third objective is to examine the impact of FDI on economic growth in SSA. To address the first objective, panel data techniques (pooled OLS and fixed effects) were employed on different samples of SSA and MENA countries for the time period 1996-2010. The findings revealed that return on capital, market size, infrastructure development, human capital, control of corruption, trade openness and strategic assets are important determinants of FDI in SSA. Surprisingly, natural resource endowments are not significant determinants of FDI. Also, the findings revealed that all things being equal, SSA countries will receive less FDI inflows compared to MENA countries. To achieve the second objective, OLS regression was employed on a sample of SSA manufacturing firms (garments, fabricated metals, and woods and furniture) for the period 2007. The findings showed that quality of human capital, foreign ownership, and firm size positively and significantly influence firm performance. On the other hand, competition, capital intensity, poor electricity delivery, and obstacles in accessing finance impact negatively on firm performance. Corruption and political instability (except for garments firms) have insignificant relationships with firm performance. Lastly, the third objective used panel data estimation techniques (pooled OLS, fixed effects and GMM) on a sample of SSA countries for the period 1996-2010. The findings showed that agricultural output, governance, merchandise exports, total official flows, and fixed capital formation are positive and significantly related to economic growth. External debt stock was negative and significantly related to economic growth. Surprisingly, the stock of FDI is insignificantly related to SSA economic growth. Further analyses indicate that in order to ensure that FDI impacts significantly on economic growth, minimum threshold requirements are needed in terms of education.

While the direct impact of working capital management (WCM) and its components (accounts receivable in days (AR), accounts payable in days (AP) and inventory holding period (INV)) on firms’ profitability has been examined in the previous literature, the underlying channels of influence have remained largely unexplored. This study adopts a contingency theory approach to investigate the relationship between WCM and profitability controlling for selected corporate governance and company characteristics. The study has three main objectives. The first objective is to determine the relationship between working capital management and its components (AR, AP and INV) and profitability as per extant research. The second objective of the research is to determine whether the effect of working capital management on profitability of UK firms is contingent on the interaction of environmental (E), resource (R) and management (M) variables. The final objective is to determine whether the effect of the components of working capital management (AR, AP and INV) on profitability of UK firms is contingent on the interaction of ERM variables. These three objectives were met by the use of a panel data methodology on a series of interactive models. The data for the study is based on the annual financial reports of 225 London Stock Exchange listed firms for the period 2001-2011. In terms of the first objective, the study found a significant relationship between WCM and two of its components (AR and AP) and profitability. However, no relationship was found between WCM component (INV) and profitability. In terms of the second objective, the results indicate that the effect of WCM on profitability is significantly moderated by the interaction with ERM variables of the firm. Finally, the results of the third objective indicate that the effect of WCM components (AR, AP and INV) on profitability is significantly moderated by the interaction with ERM of the firm. In terms of the control variables, the study found a statistically significant relationship between the corporate governance factors (Chief Executive Officer (CEO) tenure and board size) and profitability. On the other hand, company specific characteristics variables (company size, financial leverage, assets tangibility liquidity ratio, cash flow and sales growth) were also found to have statistically significant effect on the profitability of firms. On the basis of this, the study concludes that firms can maximise the benefits and minimise the cost of investment in working capital by aligning their working capital management policies with their environment and also arrange their resources internally to support such alignment as postulated in the contingency framework as any misalignment could significantly affect the firms’ performance. As a result, the study suggests the need for policy makers to match organisational resources with opportunities and threats in the general business environment in order to improve their financial performance.

No description available.

This study examines the theoretical and practical justifications of local community participation as a stakeholder group in the nomination of a World Heritage Site in Jatiluwih Village, Bali, Indonesia. The study adds to current knowledge by contributing an in-depth understanding of local community participation in the nomination process of a World Heritage Sites. The background for this study is based on the increasingly important involvement of the community in the process of the identification of potential sites and the nomination of proposed sites since some designations and nominations of World Heritage Sites have sparked tensions and protests to the detriment of the sites concerned. These tensions and protests occurred because those sites were designated without free, prior and informed consent from the local communities who live in the designated/nominated area. There is, therefore, a need to investigate the ways in which the local community as a stakeholder participates in the nomination process of a World Heritage Site and how they also participate in the decision-making processin the local context. In order to meet the aim of this research, a qualitative case study methodology was deployed which prioritises interviews conducted with the local community in Jatiluwih Village. To further enhance this study, various data collection methods such as field observations and documentations (news clippings, photos, blog, and minutes of meetings) were conducted in addition to the interviews conducted. Forty-six semi-structured interviews were carried out with the local community as stakeholder in Jatiluwih Village between May to August 2012 and another twelve interviews were conducted from stakeholders such as private sectors, public sectors and NGOs. Both sets of interviews with the local community and other stakeholders (public/private sectors and NGO) were analysed by using content analysis. Three themes (participation; participation in World Heritage; and Jatiluwih and tourism) and nine sub themes (meetings; government initiated programmes; religious participation; awareness of World Heritage status the dissemination of information on the nomination process; hopes and concerns on the label; threat for the status in the future; about Jatiluwih; and local community’s perception on tourism) were identified with the interviews conducted with the local community as a stakeholder group. From other stakeholders such as NGOs, private and public sectors, two themes (first dossier and second dossier) and eight sub themes (first dossier; inexperience; lobbying; roles of international expert; roles of NGO; roles of volunteers; roles of governing assembly; and the lack of enthusiasm of the government) were identified to represent the process of the nomination and the creation of the dossier. The majority of World Heritage research to date has taken place within a post-inscription context, which unavoidably limits the scope for understanding the whole process of World Heritage Site designation, especially with regard to how the site is designated and the role of local people who live in the proposed site. This study, therefore, contributes by investigating the local community participation as stakeholder during the nomination process of a World Heritage Site. By examining local community participation therefore it can identify their types of participation and barriers to participation in the process of nomination. Moreover, by exploring the local community participation and their views during this stage, it provides the opportunity to identify their potential roles after the site is being designated. The implications of this study relate to the need for a more proactive approach to the identification of the local community as a worthy participant in the nomination process that builds from an understanding of cultural, political and economic features. In addition, World Heritage practitioners and academics need to understand and identify the fundamental underlay of local community participation in the process of nomination. In the future, it is thus hoped that local communities will be engaged and empowered to participate in the process of nomination with them possessing heightened levels of awareness about the importance of their involvement in the identification and nomination of their sites as World Heritage.