This thesis focuses on key cross-cultural issues that transnational corporations (TNCs) face when formulating and implementing Human Resource (HR) policies and practices in their Chinese affiliates. The aim of this study is two-fold. The first is to investigate how employees perceive HR policies and practices that have been transferred from parent enterprises of TNCs, and the second is to explore the extent to which Chinese cultural values influence these HR policies and practices. These aims are addressed through an exploratory research design using in-depth qualitative interviews with seventy-six participants across twenty-one Western TNCs and two Chinese state-owned enterprises in China. By presenting the differences between the HR policies and practices with Western TNCs and Chinese companies, the distinctive Chinese cultural values can be interpreted against a more holistic background. This study contributes to international human resource management (IHRM) literature by empirically investigating the perceptions and views of both managerial and non-managerial employees on HR policies and practices within the participating companies. This study explores the contemporary Chinese cultural values and examines how these cultural values exert influence on the HR policies and practices. The findings of this study demonstrate a variation between global HR policies and practices of TNCs and their implementation at the local level. Moreover, the researcher finds that there are three national cultural values with Chinese characteristics which can affect HR policies and practices within TNCs in China; these are: guan-xi, valuing seniority, and the importance of the „human factor‟. It is indicated that Chinese cultural values are far more sophisticated than the ones conceptualised in previous literature, as these three cultural values appear to be interlinked and be embedded within the Chinese culture of collectivism. More importantly, the study shows that these deeply embedded cultural values can not be easily „ironed-out‟ by organisational culture and global HR policies and practices of TNCs. Therefore, it is argued that TNCs need to acknowledge cross-cultural differences and consider these Chinese cultural values when implementing their global HR policies and practices in China. Organisational and managerial commitment to such an approach would require conscious steps to be taken towards adopting a closely monitored HR implementation process and more inclusive HR policies and practices, rather than expecting Chinese employees to accept and adopt the global HR policies and practices which may be against their cultural values and norms.

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This study draws on the disciplines of human resource management (HRM), cross-cultural management and international business to examine how and why human resource (HR) policies and practices are transferred to international joint ventures (IJVs) in which a multinational corporation (MNC) based abroad finds a local partner or partners to set up a new organisation in the host country. The research sets out to identify the degree of influence environmental factors have on the transferability of HR policies and practices to IJVs in a developing country and their effect on HRM. Although the study is based on IJVs in Iran, its scope is wider in that it provides a generic model—ranking the importance of environmental factors on the transferability of HR policies and practices—that can be applied by companies for setting up IJVs in other developing countries. Iran is used as the transitional country for research partly because the author is an Iranian HR consultant based in Iran, but also because Iran is an emerging economy with potential to increase international business and attract foreign direct investment. Iran is just setting out on the path of HRM, thus providing a significant background for observing transferability. The research took the form of a qualitative study conducted through a series of semi-structured interviews carried out in two stages. The material gathered from the first stage helped shape the interviews for the second stage. The responses were content analysed to arrive at the results. The findings from this study show that the role of the MNC and the microenvironment of the IJV are the two most important factors affecting HRM transferability. The macro-environment, comprising national factors and local-partner inputs, ranks third in importance. As this study is the first to examine a broad host of factors in HRM transferability, it provides a contribution to knowledge about HRM transferability in IJVs in developing countries. The model ranking the degree of influence of the different factors on the transferability of HR policies and practices in IJVs will assist MNCs and local companies to better plan for IJV relationships and their strategy of HRM transferability in various countries and IJV relationships. The generic model now needs to be tested further in different countries to see if the same factors are seen in different environmental contexts.

This thesis investigates challenges encountered by UK Black (Afro-Caribbean) and Asian Construction Businesses (BACBs). It focuses on the effects of UK policies that offer entrepreneurial support to assist BACBs’ survival and growth. Despite significant interest and intensive debates, empirical research has been inconclusive with regards the effectiveness of the implementation of such policies on the survival and growth of BACBs. Moreover, there was no conceptual model or theoretical framework that had been applied in order to aid the understanding of their survival and growth. Hence, the aim of this study is to close this research gap by developing a framework, and to make recommendations for more appropriate support mechanisms to assist in the survival and growth of BACBs. A critical literature review of the effectiveness of support offered by the UK Government led to the development of an integrated model of growth factors that informed both the pilot study and the main questionnaire design. Some of these growth factors were contextual, and so necessitated a qualitative approach. However, because the model was validated through in-depth case studies, the pilot study, main questionnaire and case studies were all undertaken and analysed within an ontology that leaned towards an objective-constructivist perspective, and an interpretivist epistemology. A mixed methodology (qualitative and quantitative) approach was also employed, in order to get a better understanding of the relationships and for robust analyses. The findings indicated that support take-up by the respondents was extremely low. However, support mechanisms of networking and continuous professional development assisted the respondents’ growth. Therefore, when constructive, well organised public support is offered, there is a high probability that it will be taken-up. Policy should be targeted to assist in areas (growth intentions, innovative practices and good human resource management) which impacted on turnover and profits in order to provide sustained growth.

Today’s technology supports the design of more and more sophisticated resource-based learning (RBL) environments. RBL is a kind of learning environment in which a set of strategies are integrated for the promotion of student-centred learning. These strategies are about how to combine specially designed learning resources, interactive media and technologies into the learning environment . However, unless we provide meaningful learning content and context, the resources and other multimedia technologies are merely information resources and tools. How to design a good course is always a challenge to course designers. Principles that are based on learning theories can give courses designers a good guide. One main aim of this study is to set out a principled approach to course design for interactive multimedia learning environments. The principled approach is based on conversation theory(CT), a theory of learning and teaching. The second main aim is an evaluation of the principled approach to course design for interactive learning environments, using case studies of courses, where one or all of the principles have been applied. In the course design and learning theories literature various principles are provided. However, in general these principles have not been fully evaluated. The evaluation study reported here is thus a major contribution to the field. A third aim is to exemplify and evaluate aknowledge and task analysis based approach to generate adaptive teaching for helping students learn the required knowledge correctly and efficiently. The research processes of this study were:(1) to build a conceptual framework for CT and interactive learning environments through a literature review;(2) to describe the course design principles and how they are applied in course design;(3) to evaluate the effectiveness of the principled course design model with two case studies (4)to use a knowledge and task analysis based approach to generate adaptive teaching for helping students learn the required knowledge correctly and effciently and adaptive teaching with one case study;(5) to present the conclusions and future areas of research.

The current wave of migration into the UK is not just the latest in a long line but, to many, appears different in character from those previously. Arguably, Central and Eastern European migration can be distinguished by its unprecedented overall scale, speed and sectoral coverage as much as by its temporal quality and the social diversity of those drawn to the UK (Pollard et al. 2008). Indeed, these traits confirm a certain freedom of movement and choice for CEE migrants that are denied to their non-CEE counterparts and predecessors. This phenomenon has led to unpredictable changes in UK migration patterns (Sumption and Somerville 2010) and has changed the current state of many British workplaces which have become increasingly diversified and competitive places. However, in the context of the workplace, much of the existing research has covered traditional concerns of employment such as work exploitation and discrimination, and has predominantly used survey techniques (e.g. Fitzgerald 2007; Sriskandarajah et al. 2007). This thesis complements extant work by offering a subjective account of migrants’ work lives in a specific workplace. Its aim is to present the realities of daily life as experienced by migrants in the British workplace, particularly in relation to decisions over the level of integration with others of significance. The contribution of this research at a conceptual level lies in its use of an approach that goes beyond traditional models of migrant acculturation. By taking discourse as a medium of identity construction and expression (Bowskill et al. 2007), the research presents a more nuanced and dynamic account of migrant workers’ “fitting in” and/or distancing strategies. Data for this study has been collected during a three month period of participant observation in a local food manufacturing plant, followed by a series of 20 interviews with Polish migrant workers. This combination enabled the generation of an insider’s perspective and taps into migrants’ stories about their workplace experiences. Drawing on this data the research illuminates touchstones by which migrants anchor their sense of being settled or rooted. It covers their relationship with their home country as mediated by Polish migrant co-workers, sensitivity towards other national groups and economic well-being, tempered by a sense of organisational and interpersonal justice. As such the study illustrates that the dilemma over whether to settle down, put down roots and integrate into the workplace is no longer in the foreground when migrants think about their situation but has taken a back seat. Because migrants are no longer rooted in one place only, they are both here and there in terms of country allegiance and sense of identity but these positions are not seen as incompatible. Their choices are often deferred or rescheduled indefinitely during which experiences of the workplace infuse attitudes towards settlement and vice versa. In fact, there is a strong sense of postponing settlement decisions until they secure a better purchase in the job market, either here or back home, or their personal circumstances related to love, marriage or family change.

Many of those who conduct empirical research in the field of human resource management (HRM) believe that a quantifiable and statistical, relation, association or link exists between HRM practices and organizational performance, and can be discovered using ‘scientific’ (looking) methods and the `usual´ statistical techniques. I refer to this as empirical research on the HRM-P link. The results have been poor – in two senses. First, the evidence of the link is, at best inconclusive, and at worst casts doubt on its existence. But, second, even if this was not the case, even if a statistical link or association between HRM and performance could be shown, this empirical research cannot explain it. It cannot tell us why HRM practices are linked to performance. Fleetwood & Hesketh (2010) have diagnosed these problems as rooted in meta-theory – i.e. ontology, epistemology, aetiology and methodology. More specifically, they see the fundamental problem as the commitment by empirical researchers to some version of positivism, or `scientism´ as they prefer to call it. In addition to their critique, they have gone on to advocate an alternative meta-theory for research on the HRM-P link, namely, critical realism. This thesis takes Fleetwood & Hesketh´s work as its starting place. It accepts their argument that evidence of the HRM-P link is problematic; accepts that empirical research cannot explain why HRM practices are linked to performance; accepts that positivist/scientistic meta-theory is the problem; and accepts that critical realism might have more to offer in terms of meta-theory. But, and this is important, this thesis goes beyond Fleetwood & Hesketh´s work. It re-describes and retheorises HRM practices to develop the concept of an `HRMechanism´ - i.e. HRM practice + causal mechanism. This allows us to use critical realism´s meta-theoretical ideas of causal mechanisms in general to understand HRMechanisms specifically. It uses critical realism as a meta-theoretical basis to conceive of, and apply, qualitative research techniques to investigate what would commonly be considered a quantitative research programme. It conducts empirical research into the HRM-P link without falling back on the `usual´ statistical research techniques that have, hitherto, failed to offer evidence either way. This thesis is, therefore, a (meta) theoretically informed piece of empirical work. The empirical research consists of qualitative research into six HRMechanisms (and their associated sub-HRMechanisms) in operation at Aero Ltd, namely: team working, corporate culture, empowerment, work-life balance, performance appraisal and reward. Interview data reveals two things. First, that team working, performance appraisal and work-life balance generate powers/tendencies to increase organizational performance; whereas corporate culture, empowerment and rewards generate neutral powers/tendencies vis-á-vis organizational performance. Second it generates causal-explanations of exactly what these HRMechanisms do to generate these v powers/tendencies. In conclusion, this qualitative research is able to do what quantitative empirical research on the HRM-P link cannot, namely, explain why HRM practices are linked to organizational performance.

The aim of this thesis was to investigate anticipatory identification: newcomers’ identification with an organisation prior to entry; in particular by exploring the antecedents and consequences of the construct. Although organisational identification has been frequently investigated over the past 25 years, surprisingly little is known about what causes an individual to identify with a new organisation before entry and whether this has an impact on their relationship with the organisation after formally taking up membership. Drawing on a Social Identity approach to organisational identification, it was hypothesised that newcomers would more closely identify with an organisation prior to entry when the organisation was seen as a source of positive social identity and was situationally relevant and meaningful to the newcomer, i.e. salient, during the pre-entry period. It was also hypothesised that anticipatory identification would have post-entry consequences and would predict newcomers’ post-entry identification, turnover intentions and job satisfaction. An indirect relationship between anticipatory identification and post-entry identification through post-entry social identity judgements (termed a “feedback loop” mechanism) was additionally proposed. Finally anticipatory identification was also predicted to moderate the relationship between post-entry social identity judgements and post-entry identification (termed a “buffering” mechanism). Four studies were conducted to test these hypotheses. Study One served as a pilot study, using a retrospective self-report design with s sample of 124 university students to initially test the proposed conceptual model. Studies Two and Three adopted experimental designs. Each used a unique sample of 72 staff and students from Aston University to respectively test the hypothesised positive social identity motive and salience antecedents of anticipatory identification. Study Four explored the relationship between anticipatory identification, its antecedents and consequences longitudinally, using an organisational sample of 45 employees. Overall, these studies found support for a social identity motive antecedent of anticipatory identification, as well as more limited evidence that anticipatory identification was associated with the salience of an organisation prior to entry. Support was inconsistent for a direct relationship between anticipatory identification and post-entry identification and there was no evidence that anticipatory identification was a significant direct predictor of turnover intention and job satisfaction. Anticipatory identification was however found to act as a buffer in the relationship between post-entry social identity judgements and post-entry identification in all but one of the four samples measured. A feedback loop mechanism was observed within the experimental designs of Studies Two and Three, but not within the organisational samples of Studies One and Four. Overall the findings of these four studies highlight key ways through which anticipatory identification can develop prior to entry into an organisation. Moreover, the research observed several important post-entry consequences of anticipatory identification, indicating that an understanding of post-entry identification may be enriched by attending more closely to the extent to which newcomers identify with an organisation prior to entry.

Research has looked at single rather than a configuration of human resource management (HRM) practices to influence creativity so it is not yet clear how these practices synergistically facilitate creativity and organisational performance. I address this significant but unanswered question in a three-part study. In Study 1, I develop a high performance work system (HPWS) for creativity scale. I use Study 2 sample to test the validity of the new scale. In Study 3, I test a multilevel model of the intervening processes through which branch HPWS for creativity influences creativity and branch performance. Specifically, at the branch level, I draw on social context theory and hypothesise that branch HPWS for creativity relates to climate for creativity which, in turn, leads to creativity, and ultimately, to profit. Furthermore, I hypothesise environmental dynamism as a boundary condition of the creativity-profit relationship. At the individual level, I hypothesise a cross-level effect of branch HPWS for creativity on employee-perceived HPWS. I draw on self-determination theory and argue that perceived HPWS for creativity relate to need satisfaction and the psychological pathways of intrinsic motivation and creative process engagement to predict creativity. I also hypothesise climate for creativity as a cross-level moderator of the intrinsic motivation-creativity and creative process engagement-creativity relationships. Results of hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) indicate that ten out of the fifteen hypotheses were supported. The findings of this study respond to calls for HPWS to be designed around a strategic focus by developing and providing initial validity evidence of an HPWS for creativity scale. The results reveal the underlying mechanisms through which HPWS for creativity simultaneously influences individual and branch creativity leading to profit. Lastly, results indicate environmental dynamism to be an important boundary condition of the creativity-profit relationship and climate for creativity as a cross-level moderator of the creative process engagement-creativity.

This thesis is about the discretionary role of the line manager in inspiring the work engagement of staff and their resulting innovative behaviour examined through the lens of Social Exchange Theory (Blau, 1964) and the Job Demands-Resources theory (Bakker, Demerouti, Nachreiner & Schaufeli, 2001). The study is focused on a large British Public Sector organisation undergoing a major organisational shift in the way in which they operate as part of the public sector. It is often claimed that people do not leave organisations; they leave line managers (Kozlowski & Doherty, 1989). Regardless of the knowledge in the literature concerning the importance of the line manager in organisations (Purcell, 2003), the engagement literature in particular is lacking in the consideration of such a fundamental figure in organisational life. Further, the understanding of the black box of managerial discretion and its relationship to employee and organisation related outcomes would benefit from greater exploration (Purcell, 2003; Gerhart, 2005; Scott, et al, 2009). The purpose of this research is to address these gaps with relation to the innovative behaviour of employees in the public sector – an area that is not typically associated with the public sector (Bhatta, 2003; McGuire, Stoner & Mylona, 2008; Hughes, Moore & Kataria, 2011). The study is a CASE Award PhD thesis, requiring academic and practical elements to the research. The study is of one case organisation, focusing on one service characterised by a high level of adoption of Strategic Human Resource Management activities and operating in a rather unique manner for the public sector, having private sector competition for work. The study involved a mixed methods approach to data collection. Preliminary focus groups with 45 participants were conducted, followed by an ethnographic period of five months embedded into the service conducting interviews and observations. This culminated in a quantitative survey delivered within the wider directorate to approximately 500 staff members. The study used aspects of the Grounded Theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) approach to analyse the data and developed results that highlight the importance of the line manager in an area characterised by SHRM and organisational change for engaging employees and encouraging innovative behaviour. This survey was completed on behalf of the organisation and the findings of this are presented in appendix 1, in order to keep the focus of the PhD on theory development. Implications for theory and practice are discussed alongside the core finding. Line managers’ discretion surrounding the provision of job resources (in particular trust, autonomy and implementation and interpretation of combined bundles of SHRM policies and procedures) influenced the exchange process by which employees responded with work engagement and innovative behaviour. Limitations to the research are the limitations commonly attributed to cross-sectional data collection methods and those surrounding generalisability of the qualitative findings outside of the contextual factors characterising the service area. Suggestions for future research involve addressing these limitations and further exploration of the discretionary role with regards to extending our understanding of line manager discretion.