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The concept of the psychological contract has received increasing attention in the organizational behaviour literature. It can be defined as an individual's beliefs regarding the terms and conditions of a reciprocal exchange agreement between himself/herself and another party. Existing research has primarily focused on exploring how employees respond to perceived employer psychological contract breach. Limited attention has been paid to the norm of reciprocity as the underlying exchange mechanism, to contract formation and maintenance, and to the employer's perspective on the exchange. Using quantitative methodology, this thesis drew upon two separate samples of employees and one sample of employer representatives from two knowledge intensive Finnish organizations, comprising 109, 162 and 45 respondents respectively. A qualitative interview study of 15 employees of one the participating organizations complemented the quantitative studies. The specific aims of the thesis were 1) to examine different reciprocity forms from both employee and employer perspectives in terms of their antecedents and outcomes; and 2) to extend existing knowledge on how the psychological contract functions as a schema and how the employees see the role of reciprocity in their exchange relationship with their employer in an event of perceived contract breach. The findings of the quantitative study indicated from the perspective of the employee that perceived contract fulfilment by the employer influenced employees' perceptions of the form of reciprocity underlying the exchange relationship. Trust played a mediating role in affecting these relationships. With regard to behavioural outcomes, the different forms of reciprocity had different associations with the employees' attitudes and behaviours measured, but did not influence employees' fulfilment of psychological contract obligations. From the perspective of the employer, managers' perceptions of employees' fulfilment of the contract obligations were positively associated with their perceptions of their own obligations and the fulfilment of these obligations. Similarly, perceptions of an organizational reciprocity norm were found to have a significant effect on managers' perceptions of their obligations to employees. Relationship reciprocity orientation in the manager-employee exchange played a mediating role in these associations. The qualitative study in turn found that employees' responses to contract breach depended on their sense-making process. Employees' interpretation of the breach influenced the extent to which the breach threatened the overall psychological contract schema and the employees' adherence to the norm of reciprocity. The contributions of the thesis, its main research and practical implications, and future research directions are discussed.

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Jusqu’à aujourd’hui peu d’études ont analysé en détail les échecs des entreprises sociales. En effet, la plupart des auteurs concentrent leurs recherches théoriques et empiriques sur la réussite de ces entreprises, dans une perspective idéaliste et optimiste. Pourtant l’étude de ces échecs fournirait des informations riches et précieuses quant aux pratiques organisationnelles et à la performance de ces entreprises. Aussi, professionnels et universitaires devraient considérer l’échec comme une possibilité du fait de la complexité de ce type d’organisation et de son environnement. Les individus et leurs attributs participent à la performance de leur organisation. Ce capital qui émerge de leurs attributs est un avoir vital pour la performance de l’organisation. Plusieurs études, dans diffèrent champs, évoquent la théorie du capital humain pour structurer et expliquer l’échec organisationnel, mais très peu d’entre elles ont trait aux entreprises sociales. En adoptant une approche pragmatique et qualitative, la présente étude cherche à comprendre le rôle du capital humain dans l’échec des entreprises sociales. Grâce à une revue systématique de la littérature et à une analyse de données empiriques collectées à Nelson Mandela Bay, en Afrique du Sud, nous avons dans un premier temps, analysé les causes des échecs. Dans un second temps et sur les mêmes bases théoriques et empiriques, nous avons étudié le rôle du capital humain sur les origines de ces échecs. Les résultats de ces deux approches convergent. Les déterminants de l’échec organisationnel sont caractérisés par leurs multidimensionnalité, complexité et interconnectivité. En combinant tous ces résultats, il est possible de dessiner les grandes lignes des échecs organisationnels des entreprises sociales, en prenant à la fois en compte les environnements internes et externes qui sont en constante interaction. Il n’existe qu’une seule étude traitant spécifiquement du rôle du capital humain dans les organismes à but non lucratif et aucun article ne se penche directement sur le rôle du capital humain dans l’échecs des entreprises sociales. Pourtant, les attributs de la théorie du capital humain, comme les compétences, connaissances et les expériences, sont des éléments soulignés dans les études et des recherches sur les facteurs contribuant à l’échec des entreprises sociales. Conformément à cette littérature, les interviews effectuées dans le cadre de notre travail mettent en lumière des éléments de la litérrature sur le capital humain en rapport avec leurs échecs organisationnels. Ceci nous permet donc d’affirmer que la composante capital humain joue un rôle important dans l’échec des entreprises sociales. Il est donc possible de tirer des informations de l’étude des cas d’échecs qui permettent de faire avancer les connaissances scientifiques. Celles-ci ne sont pas uniquement théoriques et destinées à des universitaires mais aussi pratiques et utiles pour les professionnels afin d’améliorer leur performance. Enfin, cette thèse soutient l’idée de la nécessité d’investir dans le capital humain, car celui-ci a un impact positif non seulement sur les individus eux-mêmes, mais aussi sur les organisations et la société en générale. / Until now, just a few studies have scrutinised failure of social enterprises. Most authors focus their theoretical assumptions and empirical evidence about these organisations on the successful cases, from an idealistic and optimistic perspective. Yet the exploration of failed cases provides valuable and rich information regarding organisational practices and performance. Therefore, practitioners and academics must look at failure as one of the possible outcomes of operating within complex organisational and environmental contexts. Individuals and their attributes are vital assets for organisational performance. Several studies, in different fields, evoke the human capital theory to frame and explain organisational failure, but little is known with regard to social enterprises. By adopting a pragmatist’s worldview and a qualitative approach, the current study seeks to understand the role of human capital in the failure of social enterprises. First, the causes of failure are explored. Secondly, the role of human capital within is analysed. This is done throughout an extensive systematic review and analysis of empirical data collected in Nelson Mandela Bay, South Africa. The results of both parts of the present research converge. Organisational failure is characterised by multidimensionality, complexity and interconnectivity. Moreover, by combining all the results, it was possible to outline the framework of organisational failure of social enterprises, encompassing both internal and external environments, which are in constant interaction. Only one study specifically refers to human capital among charities. None of the studies directly scrutinise the role of human capital in the failure of social enterprises. Yet attributes of this theory, such as skills, knowledge, and experience, are discussed among the studies as a factor contributing to the failure. Similarly, the interviewees point out several human capital elements when speaking about their organisational failure. Hence, the results show that human capital components play an important role in the failure of social enterprises. Taken the above, it is possible to draw and advance scientific knowledge through the scrutiny of the cases of failure. It is not only an important theoretical asset to academics, but also to practitioners in order to improve their performance as well. Moreover, this thesis helps to sustain the necessity of investing in human capital, as it brings a positive impact to the individual her/himself, to the organisation and to society.

Ce travail entreprend une relecture réflexive des recherches produites dans le champ de la culture organisationnelle et défend l’idée d’une approche renouvelée et performative. Dans un premier temps, il présente le cadre des intérêts de connaissance développé par Habermas (1973) et commente son potentiel heuristique pour appréhender l’hétérogénéité des travaux dans le champ. Notre proposition de transposition de ce cadre permet d’identifier trois approches de la culture empruntant les intitulés des intérêts de connaissance. Dans un second temps, en nous inscrivant dans la lignée des travaux de Spicer et al. (2009) et d’Alvesson et Spicer (2012), nous suggérons que les travaux de l’approche « émancipatoire » se sont essentiellement concentrés sur une critique négative en examinant les effets de contrainte, de contrôle et de manipulation idéologique liés au concept de culture. Tout en reconnaissant la légitimité de ces travaux, nous formulons plusieurs propositions afin de poser les bases d’une approche émancipatoire davantage performative. Dans un troisième temps, l’étude du cas SCC, une organisation mutualiste étudiante évoluant dans un contexte concurrentiel exacerbé, permet d’exposer la pluralité et la complexité des problématiques de contradictions culturelles auxquelles les acteurs des organisations sociales et solidaires sont potentiellement confrontés. Cette étude de cas – qui s’appuie sur plusieurs mois d’observation participante et près de 50 entretiens – montre également la pertinence d’une approche renouvelée, indique des pistes de préconisations performatives pour ces organisations alternatives et légitime la poursuite de recherches similaires au sein de ces entreprises. / The purpose of this work is to discuss the relevance of the concept of critical performativity (Spicer and al. 2009, Alvesson and Spicer 2012) for research in organizational culture. We first discuss the heuristic potential of Habermas theory of knowledge interests for understanding this heterogeneous body of literature and present three original approaches or analytical categories that allow considering the field in a more reflexive manner. We then suggest that existing accounts from the emancipatory approach, largely posit a negative (though legitimate) critique of culture. As an answer, our theoretical framework stands up for a more performative critique of culture that allows plural interpretations of data, puts forward a reflexive understanding of alternative organizations and considers a “pragmatic management” of culture in those particular organizations. The Students Care Company case study illustrates these propositions and explores some dilemmas faced by employees of a progressive Mutual Company in the competitive students’ social health care sector. This case, based on several months of fieldwork and 50 interviews, exemplifies the need for further cultural researches carried under this emancipatory approach.

In order to fill the gap in existing research on the topic, this study was undertaken to establish whether a relationship exists between five sources of power and five conflict handling styles. A theoretical study regarding the concepts of power and conflict was undertaken. In the empirical study these variables were measured using the Power Base Index and Thomas-Kilmann Conflict MODE questionnaires. Reward power was significantly related to the competing and avoiding conflict handling styles; expert power was significantly related to the compromising style; and legitimate power was significantly related to the collaborating conflict handling style. The research contributes towards a better understanding of power and conflict in organisations and in supervisors' day-to-day management. However, the results indicate the importance of wider, more sophisticated research. / Industrial and Organisational Psychology / M. Com. (Industrial Psychology)