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The dissertation brings together and reports the entire work presented and discussed throughout this pioneering and original research project. This exploratory study utilising primarily semi-structured, qualitative research methodology aimed to develop a model of executive stress by discovering, understanding, describing and sharing knowledge and experience of occupational stress caused by the basic executive functions, among the oil and gas executives in Saudi Arabia. These functions included planning, organising, leading and controlling. This interpretive investigation involved forty-three executives of five major oil and gas firms in Saudi Arabia purposively selected for participation in this exploratory study through audiotape-recorded interviews gathered over a period of eight months from June 2002 to January 2003. In addition, this primary data collection method was triangulated with other secondary methods of observations, focus groups and documentary analysis involving additional twenty executives from other neighboured Arabian Gulf countries. These considerable qualitative data were systematically managed through primarily manual analysis along with the aid of NUD*IST qualitative analysis computer program. Common recurring categories, themes and patterns were identified in relation to sources of stress, manifestations and coping strategies along with stressful factors related to internal and external environments. The study findings revealed four significant interrelated eustressful and distressful themes underpinning the basic executive functions of planning, organising, leading and controlling. These were related to information management, performance management, human resource management and strategic management. The findings revealed that the participants perceived these focused executive functions as a direct source of occupational stress instead of the basic executive functions that were thought of at the beginning of the research. The emerged key patterns related to these focused activities included difficulty of people management, micromanagement behaviour and engineering attitude. Moreover, the study resulted into additional stress factors related to the organisational structure and work style of the internal environment of the organisation. There were also other stressful contributing factors associated with Government interventions, market influences, media focus and social conflict of the external environment of the organisation. Furthermore, the study revealed important personal related factors that could shape and regulate the manifestations of executive eustress or distress. These included experience, personality type, cognitive appraisal and self-esteem factors. Accordingly, a comprehensive framework of executive stress process based on a dynamic system approach was developed summarising the explored executive stress process and its underlying attributes. This present qualitative study was designed interpretively and qualitatively for exploration or discovery of the topic under investigation. Further, the limitations of this approach were acknowledged, as being subjective perceptions, understandings and descriptions of the oil and gas executives under investigation. In view of that, this new and original study was hoped to add to the existing knowledge in various related areas such as occupational health and safety, industrial/ organisational psychology, human resource management, strategic management and organisational culture. This research could add value to the field of occupational stress in Arabic context in particular and the world in general since there was little research about the types and effects of job-related stress at the time of the study.

This research explores the understanding of psychosocial risks and work-related stress by international multi-disciplinary experts in developing countries. It further explores their views on the perceived health impact of these issues. It identifies preliminary priorities for action while considering similarities and differences in conceptualizing these issues in industrialized and developing countries. Finally, it explores in what ways these issues can enter the policy agenda in developing countries. This research applies a triangular methodological approach where each stage provides the basis for the development of the next. It starts out with 29 semi-structured interviews to explore the views of experts and also to inform two rounds of an online Delphi survey, which then informed four focus group discussions. The total sample amounted to 120 participants (each sampled once). Key findings for developing countries indicate that a) psychosocial hazards need addressing due to an impact on workers' health; b) occupational health and safety priorities have changed during the last decade pointing to the need for monitoring of psychosocial hazards and the need to address work-related stress, violence, harassment and unhealthy behaviours together with other workplace hazards; c) socio-economic conditions and processes of globalization need attention in the study of psychosocial hazards and an extended research paradigm is required; and d) there is an ever present need for capacity building, stakeholder mobilization, infrastructure development and international exchange and collaboration to address all workplace hazards. Developing countries are not spared from the health and economic impact of psychosocial risks and work-related stress, and there will be a need to address these issues through policy development. To pave the way, this dissertation outlines a need for concerted action at different levels.

Summaries in English, Afrikaans and Zulu / Orientation: Security personnel work in a high risk and consequently high stress environment. This may negatively affect their wellbeing. Owing to the high crime rate in South Africa, one of the continuous stressors security personnel experience might be fearing for their lives. If security personnel fail to use effective coping strategies they will remain stressed, and this may have a negative impact on them, and their organisation or community. Challenges such as work stress in the South African security industry have not been comprehensively researched or documented (Sibanyoni, 2014). Consequently, no South African questionnaire measuring coping with stress or a stress management model for dealing with stress in a security environment, could be found. Research purpose: The general aim of the research was to develop a valid and reliable coping questionnaire and stress management model for high stress security occupations. Research methodology: A questionnaire development process, as suggested by scientific literature, was followed. The process entailed (1) determining coping strategies by means of a literature review, (2) developing the coping questionnaire, (3) administering the questionnaire to the target population, and (4) statistical analysis. The stress management model was developed by combining the results of the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and canonical correlation analysis (CCA). The development of the questionnaire was based on a sample of 381 active duty security personnel working in a high stress security environment in South Africa. Main findings: The study resulted in the development of a psychometrically sound 39-item questionnaire. The following 12 empirically validated healthy and unhealthy coping strategies were identified: (1) social support, (2) group cohesion, (3) physical exercise, (4) relaxation, (5) social media addiction, (6) healthy sleeping habits, (7) healthy diet, (8) training, (9) humour, (10) religion, (11) avoidance, and (12) denial. CFA confirmed both the construct and content validity, and composite reliability. The questionnaire was found to be invariant, and could thus be applied to different groups in high stress security occupations. A stress management model indicating the interrelationship between personality and coping was also developed. Contribution/value-add: The main contribution of this study was the development of a valid coping questionnaire and stress management model. By identifying the specific coping strategies, targeted stress management interventions could be developed. This could contribute to the overall wellness of security personnel working in high stress occupations, resulting in a healthy organisation and sound relationships with the community. Security organisations could also use the model during assessments to identify candidates with personality traits that would lead to healthier coping strategies, thereby selecting personnel that could better adapt to a security environment. / Oriëntasie: Sekuriteitspersoneel werk in ’n hoë risiko en gevolglik ’n stresvolle omgewing. Dit kan hulle welstand negatief beïnvloed. As gevolg van die hoë misdaadsyfer in Suid-Afrika kan een van die deurlopende stressors wat sekuriteitspersoneel ervaar ’n vrees vir hulle lewens wees. Indien sekuriteitspersoneel nie effektiewe streshantering strategieë gebruik nie, kan hulle voortdurend stres ervaar en dit kan ’n negatiewe impak op hulleself, hulle organisasie of gemeenskap hê. Uitdagings soos beroepstres in die Suid-Afrikaanse sekuriteitsindustrie is nog nie deeglik nagevors of gedokumenteer nie (Sibanyoni, 2014). Gevolglik kon daar vir die sekuriteitsomgewing geen Suid-Afrikaanse vraelys wat streshantering meet of ’n stresbestuursmodel gevind word nie. Doel van die navorsing: Die algemene doel van die navorsing was om vir stresvolle sekuriteitsberoepe ’n geldige en betroubare streshanteringsvraelys en stresbestuursmodel te ontwikkel. Navorsingsmetodologie: ’n Vraelys ontwikkelingsproses, soos deur wetenskaplike literatuur voorgestel, is gevolg. Die proses het die volgende behels: (1) die vasstel van die streshantering strategieë deur middel van ’n literatuuroorsig, (2) die ontwikkeling van die streshanteringsvraelys, (3) administrasie van die vraelys aan die teiken populasie en (4) statistiese analise. Die stresbestuursmodel is ontwikkel deur die resultate van die bevestigende faktoranalise (BFA) en die kanoniese korrelasie analise te kombineer. Die ontwikkeling van die vraelys is gebaseer op ’n steekproef van 381 aktiewe diens sekuriteitspersoneel wat in Suid-Afrika in ’n stresvolle sekuriteitsomgewing werk. Hoofbevindinge: Die studie het tot ’n psigometries betroubare 39-item vraelys gelei. Twaalf empiries gestaafde gesonde en ongesonde streshantering strategieë is geïdentifiseer naamlik: (1) sosiale ondersteuning, (2) groep kohesie, (3) fisiese oefening, (4) ontspanning, (5) sosiale media verslawing, (6) gesonde slaapgewoontes, (7) gesonde dieet, (8) opleiding, (9) humor, (10) godsdiens, (11) vermyding en (12) ontkenning. BFA het die konstruk- en inhoudsgeldigheid so wel as die saamgestelde betroubaarheid bevestig. Die vraelys is invariant en kan dus op verskillende groepe in hoë stres sekuriteitsberoepe toegepas word. ’n Stresbestuursmodel wat die verwantskap tussen persoonlikheid en streshantering aandui is ook ontwikkel. Bydrae/waardetoevoeging: Die belangrikste bydrae van hierdie studie was die ontwikkeling van ’n geldige streshanteringsvraelys en stresbestuursmodel. Deur die spesifieke streshantering strategieë te identifiseer kan gefokusde streshantering intervensies ontwikkel word. Dit kan tot die algehele welstand van sekuriteitspersoneel wat in stresvolle beroepe werk bydra en derhalwe ’n gesonde organisasie en goeie verhoudings met die gemeenskap. Sekuriteitsorganisasies kan ook tydens keurings die model gebruik om kandidate met persoonlikheidstrekke, wat tot gesonder streshantering strategieë sal lei, te identifiseer en dus personeel kies wat beter by ’n sekuriteitsomgewing sal aanpas. / Isimo somqondo: Abasebenzi bezokuphepha basebenza ezindaweni ezinobungozi obuphakeme nengcindezi ephakeme. Lokhu kungaba nomthelela omubi esimeni sabo sempilo. Ngenxa yezinga lobugebengu eliphezulu eNingizimu Afrika, okukodwa okudala ingcindezi ngokuqhubekayo kubasebenzi bezokuphepha ukwesabela izimpilo zabo. Uma abasebenzi bezokuphepha bengasebenzisi amasu aphumelelayo okubhekana nalezi zimo, bazohlala benengcindezi futhi lokhu kungaba nomphumela omubi kubona, enhlanganweni yabo noma emphakathini wabo. Ucwaningo ngezinselelo ezinjengokucindezeleka emsebenzini ezimbonini zokuphepha lapha eNingizimu Afrika alwenziwanga futhi akubhaliwe kabanzi ngakho (Sibanyoni, 2014). Kanjalo, alutholakalanga uhlu lwemibuzo lwaseNingizimu Afrika olungalinganisa ukuthi abasebenzi bezokuphepha babhekana kanjani nengcindezi kanye nomlinganiso olawula ingcindezi ukubhekana nengcindezi ezindaweni zezokuphepha. Inhloso yocwaningo: Inhloso enkulu yocwaningo kwakuwukuqamba uhlu lwemibuzo oluqinisekile noluthembekile ukubhekana nengcindezi nomlinganiso wokulawula ingcindezi emisebenzini yezokuphepha enengcindezi ephakeme. Indlela yokwenza ucwaningo: Isenzo sokuqamba uhlu lwemibuzo njengoba kuhlongozwa yimibhalo yezesayensi silandelwe kulolu cwaningo. Lesi senzo sibe (1) nokuthola amasu okubhekana nengcindezi ngokubhekisa emibhalweni ehloliwe, (2) nokuqamba uhlu lwemibuzo ephathelene nokubhekana nengcindezi, (3) nokunikeza uhlu lwemibuzo kubantu abathintekayo, kanye (4) nokwenza uhlaziyo lwezibalo. Umlinganiso wokulawula ingcindezi wenziwe ngokuhlanganisa imiphumela yeConfirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) neyeCanonical Correlation Analysis (CCA). Ukuqanjwa kohlu lwemibuzo kweyeme esampuleni labasebenzi bezokuphepha abangama-381 abamatasa emsebenzini abasebenza ezindaweni ezinengcindezi ephakeme eNingizimu Afrika. Okukhulu okutholakele ocwaningweni: Ucwaningo lube nomphumela ekuqanjweni kohlu lwemibuzo oluqinisekile ngokwesayikhomethri olunemibuzo angama-39. Kukhonjwe amasu okubhekana nengcindezi ayishumi nambili aqinisekiswe ngokubukisiswa asesimeni esiphilile nesingaphilile sempilo, okubalwa kuwo, (1) uxhaso lomphakathi, (2) ukuba ndawonye kweqembu, (3) ukuzivocavoca umzimba, (4) ukuziphumuza, (5) ukuba yisigqili semithombo yomphakathi, (6) imikhuba emihle yokulala, (7) uqeqesho, (8) amahlaya, (10) inkolo, (11) ukuxwaya, kanye (12) nokwala. ICFA iqinisekise ukuba neqiniso kombono nokuqukethwe, kanye nokwethembeka okuxubile. Kutholakele ukuthi uhlu lwemibuzo aluguquki futhi lungasetshenziswa emaqenjini ehlukene emisebenzini yezokuphepha anengcindezi ephakeme. Kuthuthukiswe nomlinganiso olawula ingcindezi okhombisa ubudlelwano phakathi komuntu isibili nokubhekana nengcindezi. Umnikelo: Umnikelo omkhulu walolu cwaningo kube ukuqamba uhlu lwemibuzo oluqinisekile ukubhekana nengcindezi kanye nomlinganiso wokulawula ingcindezi. Ngokukhomba amasu aqondene nokubhekana nengcindezi, kungathuthukiswa izindlela ezihlosiwe zokulawula ingcindezi. Lokhu kunganikela esimeni esihle sempilo yabasebenzi bezokuphepha abasebenza imisebenzi enengcindezi ephakeme, okuzoholela enhlanganweni esesimeni esihle nasebudlelwaneni obuhle nomphakathi. Izinhlangano zezokuphepha nazo zingawusebenzisa lomlinganiso ngesikhathi sokuhlola ukubona abafundi abanezici ezinomthelela omuhle, kumasu abhekana nengcindezi asesimeni esihle, ezizobenza bakhethe abasebenzi abazongena kahle ezindaweni zokuphepha. / Industrial and Organisational Psychology / D. Phil. (Industrial and Organisational Psychology)