In today’s interconnected world, increasing numbers of consumers are becoming involved in an internationally mobile lifestyle. During this transitional event, these international consumers become temporary residents in a foreign host country. Transient consumers are formally known as sojourners. Despite the recognition that sojourners’ international mobility is contributing to the development of multicultural marketplaces worldwide, there is a paucity of empirical evidence on their consumer behaviour. As opposed to other border crossers, sojourners do not travel with the intention of settling down in the host country. Thus, their psychological profile differs from that of permanent movers and, consequently, there is a need for a separate study of sojourners as consumers. To this end, this thesis builds on the notions of home and host countries from the consumer acculturation theory. Specifically, the influence of psychological values relating to sojourners’ home and host country on their consumer behaviour is examined in two investigations. Using structural equation modelling and related statistical methods, the findings from the two investigations add to the development of the knowledge on this consumer group. The home country investigation shows that nostalgia and ethnocentrism are two influential drivers of sojourners’ buying intention towards products from home. Importantly, it is also found that the length of stay in the host country and the product category determine the extent to which the two values shape sojourner consumer behaviour. The host country investigation reveals that sojourners’ level of place attachment to a host country is a useful predictor of sojourners’ origin recognition accuracy of the host country’s brands. This is an important finding, as brand origin recognition accuracy has been found to influence attitudes and intentions. The two investigations contribute to the consumer acculturation theory by uncovering the influence of the country-specific psychological values that drive consumer behaviour. The findings on the influences of values and demographic characteristics provide practical means for marketers to target sojourners as customers.

Estimation of price sensitivity from real world data is typically complicated by a dependence between price and demand, or endogeneity of price, since prices are regularly varied in anticipation of changes to demand. This problem is particularly severe in customised pricing environments, where sellers have some freedom to quote different prices for different orders, based on information about each customer and their order. When endogeneity is left untreated and price is modelled as an independent predictor, this leads to underestimation of price sensitivity and sub-optimal pricing strategies. Endogeneity bias is corrected by the inclusion of instrumental variables in the model; these are variables which are correlated with price and independent of demand, and allow us to separate the direct and indirect effects of price on demand. Whilst instrumental variable estimation has been well documented for retail pricing problems, their use in customised pricing is relatively under-represented in marketing literature. Here we present a probit model of purchasing behaviour for these environments, whereby the price offered to a customer and their corresponding price threshold are represented by a bivariate Gaussian random variable. Recorded or known sources of dependence between the two are introduced via covariate effects on the mean and unrecorded sources of dependence are captured by a residual correlation parameter. The parameters are identified by the inclusion of instrumental variables in the model. Using a two-stage estimation procedure, the model is fitted to telesales data for heating oil, and price sensitivity estimates are compared to those of a naive model, which does not correct for endogeneity bias. Bayesian estimation of the model is then performed via MCMC, and the resulting sample of parameters are used to examine the impacts of various price changes on profit.

Branded apparel retailers are part of a high growth sub-sector in UK retail (PwC, 2016). The growth of this sub-sector has attracted investment from middle market private equity firms (Clark and Bawden, 2011), yet little research has been undertaken into the role that private equity firms play in the growth of these firms. This is surprising given that private equity investors have had a mixed impact on the performance of branded apparel retailers. Using a grounded theory approach (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Locke, 2001; Charmaz, 2008), this study identifies the factors affecting the performance of branded apparel retailers under private equity ownership. Data was collected from private equity professionals and branded apparel retailers, as well as other industry stakeholders such as corporate finance professionals. From the grounded theory process, the researcher developed a Three-Stage Private Equity Model to demonstrate the factors that affect branded apparel retailers through different stages of private equity ownership. This study makes the following contributions to theory. First, the Three-Stage Private Equity Model provides insight into the private equity and branded apparel retailer relationship. This study provides an in-depth understanding of the factors affecting firm performance. Second, the study contributes to parenting theory by questioning the static nature of the Heartland Matrix (formerly the Ashridge Portfolio Display Matrix). This study highlights that parenting relationships are far more dynamic than the Heartland Matrix suggests. Third, the Three-Stage Private Equity Model is used as a substantive theory to question the value adding and value subtracting mechanism proposed by Campbell et al (2014). The study finds the value adding and value subtracting behaviours identified by Campbell et al (2014) do not fully apply to buy-to-sell parenting relationships. The study contributes to parenting theory by highlighting the differences and similarities between the factors identified within the Three-Stage Private Equity Model and the value adding/subtracting behaviours proposed by Campbell et al (2014). Key Words: Private Equity, Branded Apparel Retailers, Grounded Theory, Parenting Theory.

This research sought to identify the factors that influence m-Commerce adoption by micro and small businesses in Nigeria. However, considering that different categories of these businesses are likely to be influenced by different set of factors, depending on their level of exposure and adoption of m-Commerce, a stage model was designed. This stage model provided a prototype of the progression of m-Commerce adoption by micro and small businesses in Nigeria. Through the analysis of data collected from semi-structured interviews and questionnaires, the stage model was confirmed. Also, unique factors that influence m-Commerce adoption by micro and small businesses in Nigeria were identified such as: Nigeria’s mobile phone culture, the Central Bank of Nigeria’s regulatory cashless policy, Nigeria’s ostentatious culture, and cultural emphasis on physical contact in the conduct of business activities. Within the thesis, recommendations for leveraging the presence of the identified factors were discussed. These recommendations include creating awareness of security features among customers and introduction of regulatory policies that can support increased adoption of m-Commerce such as money back guarantee. Theoretical implications of the research include contributing to the debate on the divide between m-Commerce and e-Commerce, providing an update to existing literature on m-Commerce adoption factors and presenting a stage model that can guide business adoption of m-Commerce. Practical implications of the research include highlighting opportunities to create additional sources of revenue for businesses, strategies towards optimising business processes, increasing brand or business awareness and inspiring customer loyalty. Practical steps towards leveraging Nigeria’s unique socio-cultural factors were highlighted including the use of Pay on Delivery service. Although this study focused on micro and small businesses in Nigeria, findings from the study may be generalised to countries that have similar socio-cultural contexts such as Pakistan and India.

The vast and rapid expansion of internet usage has generated widespread online sales, making the UK one of the leading countries for e-commerce. Until now there has been no clear understanding or analysis of the spatial variations of online activities. Many studies have,however, examined the variance in online buying among different demographic groups usually based on limited survey information. These variations have often been explained by reference to two theories – efficiency theory and diffusion of innovations theory (Rogers, 1995). This lack of research to date is also manifest in the lack of consideration of online sales in traditional store location methodologies. The aim of this research is to establish a new model for site location which includes e-grocery shopping on the UK retail sector. Having explored the literature around the geography of e-commerce and the surveys of geodemographic usage, the thesis explores data unique to the academic sector- namely Sainsbury’s store revenue (for both physical and online channels) and customer data based on their loyalty card (interaction data). The analysis of these data sets establishedfour major trends in the relationship between online share and store provision with insights into the substitution of online and physical channels in areas with limited accessibility to physical grocery stores. Using this information, a new, revised SIM is built and calibrated to include estimates of revenue for both face to face and online stores. It is hoped this will provide an important addition to the existing kitbag of techniques available to retail store location planners.

In searching for explanations to a Nation's export growth studies have been focused on identification of the determining conditions and analysing their relationship with the countries' export competitive advantage. One outstanding framework of such analysis has been the 'Single Diamond' (SD) conditions approach developed by Michael Porter, (1990). However, criticisms of this model range from its limitation in explaining the competitive advantage of small or developing countries, up to and including its exclusion, by definition, of factor conditions that are domiciled outside national borders. Furthermore this model's variables choice is too subjective such that their individual importance to the overall national competitive advantage are deemed country specific. Consequently alternative models that include causal factors that derive from cross- border networking of all kinds of commercial intercourse have been posited in the form of a 'Double' (DD) or 'Multiple' (MD) Diamond framework. This research's major objective was to test if Porter's Single Nation diamond framework could be used to fully identify and explain the source of 'determining' conditions that give Zimbabwe (an African Developing Country) its international competitive advantage in Developed Countries markets. Thus using local determining conditions alone (SD) and then a combination of local and foreign (DD or MD) conditions it was possible to identify the limitations of the SD framework. The results of this research are in line with experiences of other small countries and they suggest that the single diamond approach is limited in its explanation of the identity and sources of conditions that determine that country's competitive advantage. The Double-Diamond framework linking Zimbabwe to S. Africa's advanced economy was superior to both the SD and MD alternatives. The conclusion reached was that in the case of Zimbabwe the DD framework of analysis should be the basis for designing economic and trade development policies. However, in the context of this DD approach, further empirical research should focus on the influence of the DCs economic growth on the LDC's development pattern.

Increasingly policy-makers and regulatory theorists have focused on network access regulation. This thesis examines the role of network access regulation as part of a regulator's overall competition policy or strategy to introduce competition into privatised industries. It examines in detail recent theoretical models of network access regulation. The analysis is undertaken in the context of the UK contract gas market. British Gas (BG) was privatised in 1986, and the gas industry structure remained vertically integrated. The incumbent, or in the present case, BG, retains control of the gas network transmission while competing in the final goods, or retail, market. The present research provides a theoretical framework examining the impact of regulatory and competition policies with respect to both the final goods market and network access, on the competitive process in the contract gas market. This is done using a unique dataset on the UK contract gas market made available by a leading gas analyst and broker; John Hall Associates. The theoretical analysis distinguishes between the potential strategic advantage of both BG and the main competing shippers. BG, as the incumbent in the vertically integrated industry, has pre-entry advantages, while the main competing shippers who are wholly or partially owned by North Sea gas producers and operate as downstream firms in the retail market potentially have post-entry advantage. The entrants pricing behaviour followed a distinct and separate path to that of BG's. An empirical analysis of the entrants' pricing behaviour is conducted. This is done within the context of supergames or repeated games explanation of dynamic oligopoly behaviour. The relationship between access charges and market structure, or the level of market concentration is also empirically established, which shows the impact of access charges on the competitive process, market structure and final goods prices. The estimates are used to give an empirical application of the "Direct-plus-Opportunity Cost Regime" (DORC) model of access pricing. Consequently, the various policy options and choices open to a policy-maker are considered.

Social media is an ideal environment for online small to medium sized enterprises (e-SMEs) to build and develop brand communities. However, there is currently limited research investigating how initial and continual consumer trust is formed through this type of engagement for new and existing e-SME customers. Conducted from three data sets (an e-SME social media netnography, key informant and consumer interviews) this thesis investigates this issue by developing a framework highlighting how engagement within social media brand communities can influence e-SME brand trust. The findings identify eight core trust themes which positively influence initial and continual consumer trust, expanding the existing online consumer trust literature. The increasing role of engagement is also investigated with strategic avenues identified, as well as the influential effect engagement can have on loyalty and trust. This thesis also investigates how e-SMEs can identify business value from the use of social media and increase corporate reputation through social media brand communities. Business value through social media brand community engagement is found to lie primarily in the lasting relationships developed and trust created for consumers. This thesis provides an important contribution to knowledge by increasing the theoretical and managerial understanding of social media brand community engagement for e-SMEs, and how the effects of such engagement can influence consumer trust and reputation.

This thesis studies the set of motivations and constraints involved in the purchasing of products perceived to be environmentally friendly, a phenomenon termed green consumerism, and in related forms of public environmentalism, including household-based recycling and membership of organised environmental groups. Both the public and members of organised environmental groups are of interest as potential green consumers, as well as retailers acting as providers of products and information relevant to green consumerism. The emphasis is upon the development of an integrated qualitative framework for studying environmental motivation and behaviour, and the understanding of the interplay of motivations and constraints at the individual level. Individual motivations are studied with respect to perceived responsibility for the environment and the rationalisation of this on the basis of the perceived cumulative impact of public environmentalism en masse. Constraints upon the translation of this responsibility into behaviour include economic priorities, cultural contexts and quality of life concerns and may be external (socially imposed) or internal to the individual. The latter case represents the refusal to sacrifice and the agency therefore present in the choice of proenvironmental behaviour. Retailers motivations are also studied with respect to perceived environmental responsibility, but the economic context of business gives economic constraints higher priority and more power to constrain environmental responsibility than moral judgements alone. Retailers, the media and environmental groups also function as information providers to seek public support. The uncertainty of much environmental information and the layperson’s perceived lack of evaluative ability work to constrain the usability of environmental information and to permit distrust of experts and elites perceived to be in control of information dissemination, within a wider trust of systems of information provision. The immediacy of information links clearly to action, whereas wider issues and impacts further into the future are more weakly connected to proenvironmental behaviour. Generally, the proenvironmental action taken on the basis of these motivations and constraints is perceived as individualistic rather than collective. All these themes indicate that green consumerism, like other public proenvironmental behaviours, depends upon information, responsibility and the belief in impact. However, contextual constraints of cultural norms, economic situations and internal priorities mediate in the adoption of such behaviours. Upcoming changes in law and markets may influence these factors, making the future of this very recent phenomenon as dynamic as its past.

The nature of shopping activity is changing in response to innovation in retailing and the growth in online channels. There is a growing interest from transport researchers, policy makers, marketing and retail businesses in understanding the implications of this change. However, existing tools and techniques developed for analysing behaviour in traditional retail environments do not adequately represent emerging complexities resulting from digital innovation. The overarching goal of this research is to advance the development of new modelling and data collection tools for studying choice behaviour in today's increasingly complex retail environments. While data collection and empirical applications relate to grocery shopping in London, the conceptual discussions and modelling frameworks developed are generalisable to all shopping activity. The contributions of the presented work are at three levels. First, a comprehensive conceptual framework was developed incorporating interactions between multiple agents that drive the transformation of the industry, and individual choice behaviour within this broader perspective. Secondly, it is a significant challenge for researchers to find appropriate data sets, which combine travel and shopping related information and also capture online activity. For empirical applications here, an augmented version of a widely accepted revealed preference consumer panel data was used in together with API based data mining tools that offer great potential for enrichment in discrete choice modelling. Third, discrete choice models were developed using gathered data for the joint choice of channel, shopping destination, and travel mode. This extension to traditional destination and mode choice models is critical as it provides the tools to quantify the effects of increased online shopping on traditional store formats and travel patterns. Results revealed important insights into how shoppers choose from online and in-store alternatives, and how mode choice fits in with these decisions. During our study we also identified and explored substantial limitations in empirical applications of discrete choice models. We analysed issues of identification caused by sample size constraints, potential estimation bias due to potentially restricting choice set generation assumptions, and challenges that arise when newly introduced innovative alternatives show low-adoption rates.