A la majoria de les 148 poblacions de Papaver rhoeas L. analitzades es va detectar resistència front als herbicides tribenuró-metil i 2.4-D. Les poblacions van ser recollides a una prospecció de camp semi-dirigida en camps de cereal d'hivern del Nord-est d'Espanya. La situació més freqüent va ser la de poblacions lleugerament resistents al 2.4-D i amb una proporció de plantes resistents a tribenuró-metil elevada. Es va desenvolupar un mètode de detecció a la resistència per a cada herbicida basats en llavors, els quals van ser considerats com a vàlids després de que els resultats van ser comprovats amb assaigs en hivernacle i en camp. Per a tribenuró-metil, el test permetia quantificar la freqüència de plantes resistents, mentre que pel 2.4-D el grau de resistència va ser expressat mitjançant un ratio basat en la longitud del hipocotil. La resistència enfront al tribenuró-metil sembla estar causada per una mutació mentre que la resistència front a 2.4-D està probablement basada en un canvi metabòlic de les plantes resistents. A la zona d'estudi, P. rhoeas va germinar a la tardor i principis d'hivern, principalment entre octubre i desembre, tot i que es va detectar germinació entre setembre i abril, depenent de la localitat i de l'any. No es van trobar diferències als hàbits de germinació entre poblacions sensibles o resistents als herbicides. En funció de les condicions climàtiques la germinació va ser d'entre 12 i 70% després de la primera tardor i hivern per a llavors recollides l'estiu anterior. Llavors que no van germinar després del primer hivern probablement van entrar en un estat de dormició secundària. Cultivar el sòl va estimular clarament la emergència de P. rhoeas i pot ser una tècnica apropiada a camp per a afavorir la germinació. Es va detectar una mortalitat natural de P. rhoeas a la majoria dels anys i a la majoria dels assaigs. Tot i així, densitats inicials elevades conduïen sovint a densitats finals de fins a 300 plantes m -2 al final del cicle de cultiu. La utilització de les arreus prèviament a la sembra del cultiu va ser un mètode efectiu per a col·locar les llavors de P. rhoeas en una posició no favorable per a germinar. Es va observar una reducció mitja del 40% en la emergència. Independentment de si la població de P. rhoeas va ser sensible o resistent, entre un 63 i 99% de les llavors van ser encara viables després de 31 mesos d'enterrat al sòl a 20 cm de profunditat. Per això, l'ús de les arreus hauria de ser restringit a un ús ocasional, ja que les llavors que tornen a ser col·locades en superfície poden germinar si ha passat poc temps després d' haver estat enterrades. La utilització de la grada de pues flexibles pot ser un mètode efectiu per al control de P. rhoeas resistent als herbicides, però requereix una observació detallada de la mida de la herba i del cultiu. L'efecte de la grada en pre-emergència va ser molt petit o inapreciable. En post-emergència es va observar que la grada va ser més eficaç sobre plantes petites de P. rhoeas, ja que aquesta espècie desenvolupa una arrel pivotant molt forta. En anys secs la eficàcia va ser més gran ja que les plantes danyades no van poder recuperar-se. En condicions més humides les plantes de P. rhoeas es van recuperar sovint després del tractament així que la eficàcia inicial va disminuir amb el temps. En poques ocasions la grada va estimular la germinació de noves plantes. El control de P. rhoeas va ser insuficient en alguns camps, però es va observar una disminució de la densitat a tots els casos. El control químic de P. rhoeas resistent a tribenuró-metil i a 2.4-D és possible amb herbicides pertanyent a diversos grups de la classificació proposada pel Comité d'Acció de Resistència als Herbicides (HRAC). En pre-emergència, pendimetalina, trifluralina + linuró i trifluralina + clortoluró van ser els herbicides més efectius i d'acció més regular. En post-emergència precoç es va obtenir un control menys constant, però també elevat amb MCPA + diflufenican, isoproturé + diflufenican i tribenuró-metil + metribuzina. A post-emergència tardana les barreges amb ioxinil o bromoxinil així com florasulam + 2.4-D van controlar les poblacions resistents a molts casos. Amb l'objectiu de prevenir i controlar la resistència a herbicides a P. rhoeas aquests diferents mètodes de control han de ser utilitzats conjuntament, definint una estratègia de control integrat. / En la mayoría de las 148 poblaciones de Papaver rhoeas L. analizadas, se detectó resistencia frente a los herbicidas tribenurón-metil y 2.4-D. Las poblaciones fueron recogidas en una prospección de campo semidirigida en el Nordeste de España. La situación más frecuente fue la de poblaciones ligeramente resistentes a 2.4-D y con una proporción de plantas resistentes a tribenurón-metil elevada. Se desarrolló un método rápido de detección a la resistencia para cada herbicida basado en semillas, los cuales fueron considerados válidos después de que los resultados fueron comprobados con ensayos de invernadero y de campo. Para el caso de tribenurón-metil, el test permitió cuantificar la frecuencia de plantas resistentes, mientras que para el caso del 2.4-D el grado de resistencia fue expresado con un ratio calculado a partir de la longitud del hipocótilo. La resistencia frente a tribenurón-metil parece estar causada por una mutación mientras que la resistencia frente a 2.4-D está probablemente basada en un cambio metabólico de las plantas resistentes. En la zona de estudio, P. rhoeas germinó principalmente en otoño y principios de invierno, mayoritariamente entre octubre y diciembre, aunque fue detectada desde septiembre hasta abril, dependiendo de la localidad y del año. No se encontraron diferencias en los hábitos de germinación entre poblaciones sensibles o resistentes a los herbicidas. En función de las condiciones climáticas la germinación fue de 12 hasta 70% después del primer otoño e invierno para las semillas recogidas en el verano anterior. Semillas que no germinaron tras el primer invierno probablemente entraron en un estadio de dormición secundaria. El laboreo del suelo estimuló claramente la emergencia de P. rhoeas y puede ser una técnica apropiada en campo para favorecer la germinación. Se detectó una mortalidad natural de P. rhoeas en la mayoría de los años y en la mayoría de ensayos. A pesar de ello, a menudo densidades iniciales de las poblaciones en campo alcanzaban todavía 300 plantas m -2 al final del ciclo de cultivo. El uso de un arado de vertedera previo a la siembra del cereal fue un método efectivo para colocar las semillas de P. rhoeas en una posición no favorable para a germinar. Se observó una reducción media de 40% en la emergencia. Independientemente de si la población de P. rhoeas fue sensible o resistente, entre un 63 y 99% de las semillas fueron todavía viables tras 31 meses de enterrado en el suelo en 20 cm de profundidad. Por ello, el uso del arado de vertedera se debería restringir a un uso ocasional ya que las semillas devueltas a capas superficiales del suelo estarán capacitadas para germinar si ha transcurrido poco tiempo después de su enterrado. El uso de la grada de púas flexibles puede ser un método efectivo para el control de P. rhoeas resistente a los herbicidas pero requiere una observación detallada del tamaño de la hierba y del cultivo. El efecto del uso de la grada en pre-emergencia fue muy pequeño o inapreciable. En post-emergencia la grada fue más eficaz sobre plantas pequeñas de P. rhoeas, ya que esta especie desarrolla una raíz pivotante muy fuerte. En años secos, la eficacia fue mayor, ya que las plantas dañadas no pudieron recuperarse. En condiciones de humedad más idóneas, las plantas de P. rhoeas a menudo se recuperaron después del tratamiento así que la eficacia inicial disminuyó con el tiempo. En pocas ocasiones el uso de la grada estimuló la germinación de nuevas plantas. El control de P. rhoeas fue insuficiente en algunos campos pero se observó una disminución de la densidad en todos los casos. El control químico de P. rhoeas resistente a tribenurón-metil y a 2.4-D es posible con herbicidas pertenecientes a grupos distintos de la clasificación propuesta por el Comité de Acción de Resistencia a los Herbicidas (HRAC). En pre-emergencia, pendimetalina, trifluralina + linuron y trifluralina + clortolurón fueron los herbicidas más efectivos y de acción más regular. En post-emergencia precoz se alcanzó un control menos constante pero también elevado con MCPA + diflufenicán, isoproturón + diflufenicán y tribenurón-metil + metribuzina. En post-emergencia tardía, las mezclas conteniendo ioxinil o bromoxinil así como florasulam + 2.4-D controlaron las poblaciones resistentes en muchos casos. Con el objetivo de prevenir y manejar la resistencia a herbicidas en P. rhoeas estos diferentes métodos de control deben ser usados conjuntamente, definiendo una estrategia de control integrado. / Herbicide resistance towards the herbicides tribenuron-methyl and 2.4-D was detected in most of the 148 analysed Papaver rhoeas L. populations collected in a semi-directed field survey in North-eastern Spain. The most frequent situations found were populations slightly resistant to 2.4-D and with a high frequency of resistant plants towards tribenuron-methyl. One seed-based quick-test for each herbicide on agar medium was developed and found valuable for detecting herbicide resistance after validating with greenhouse and field trials. In the case of tribenuron-methyl, the test allowed to quantify the frequency of resistant plants, while in the case of 2.4-D the resistance degree was expressed with a hipocotyl length ratio. Resistance towards tribenuron-methyl seems to be caused by a target-site mutation, while resistance towards 2.4-D is probably metabolism-based. In the study area, P. rhoeas germinated mainly in autumn and early winter, especially between October and December but was detected since September until April, depending on the locations and on the year's characteristics. No differences in germination habits were found between susceptible and resistant populations. Depending on the climatic conditions, germination was found between 12 and 70% during the first season for freshly sown seeds. Seeds, which did not germinate after the first season probably entered in a secondary dormancy stage. Cultivation clearly stimulated weed emergence and could be used in field to favour germination. A generally strong natural weed mortality was detected in most of the years and fields. In spite of this, high initial weed populations reached often still 300 plants m -2 at the end of the cropping cycle. Ploughing was found to be an effective method for placing P. rhoeas seeds in a non-favourable position for germination. An average reduction of around 40% emergence was observed. Regardless if the P. rhoeas population was susceptible or resistant, between 63 and 99% P. rhoeas seeds were still viable 31 months after burial in soil at 20 cm depth. Therefore, ploughing should be conducted occasionally only as the seeds moved upwards again were able to germinate. Harrowing can be an effective control method of herbicide resistant P. rhoeas but require an accurate observation of the weed and crop size. The effect of pre-emergence harrowing were very little or inappreciable. In post-emergence harrowing should better be conducted at early growth stages of P. rhoeas. As this species has a tap root, efficacy decreased if plants were too big. In dry years efficacy was higher as damaged plants could not recover. In better moisture conditions, P. rhoeas plants often recovered after being buried so that initial high efficacy decreased in time. In few occasions harrowing stimulated germination. Mechanical control of P. rhoeas by harrowing was insufficient in some trials but reduced weed plant number in all cases. Chemical P. rhoeas control was possible with herbicides of different classification groups defined by the Herbicide Resistance Action Commitee (HRAC). In pre-emergence, pendimethaline, trifluraline + linuron and trifluraline + chlortoluron were the most effective and most regular herbicides. In early post-emergence a less constant but quite high control efficacy was achieved with MCPA + diflufenican, isoproturon + diflufenican and tribenuron-methyl + metribuzine. In late post-emergence, mixtures containing ioxinil or bromoxinil, especially bromoxinil + MCPP, ioxinil + bromoxinil + MCPP as well as florasulam + 2.4-D often controlled the herbicide resistance populations well. In order to prevent and to manage the herbicide resistance in P. rhoeas these different control methods should be used together, defining an integrated weed control strategy.

本文考察佛教瑜伽中觀派系統內之刹那滅。此考察主要以寂護（Śāntarakita）之《攝真實》(Tattvasagraha)第八章「恆常的存在物之考察」（sthirabhāva-parikā）為文本根據，並以花戒（Kamalaśīla）之《疏》(Tattvasagraha-pañjikā)為輔助。刹那滅主張存在物只在一刹那中存在，能持續存在至下刹那。實在者（realist）如正派（Nyāya）、勝派（Vaiśeika）等以共相、本體等恆常的存在物，視為其他事物存在背後的基礎。他們認為本體能持續存在至下刹那，能關係於下刹那的存在物，把其產生或滅。按此，存在物必須透過被原因「產生」的形式生起，其滅也必須由其自身以外的原因造成，否則它能一直存在。如取實在者對存在物的解，刹那滅被推翻。筆者認為刹那滅之所以成有三點（1）被產生的存在物皆以「滅」為本性、（2）存在物是以即時產生結果的形式存在、（3）前刹那與後刹那的存在物以必然伴隨的（necessary concomitant）關係互相依待，後刹那的果並非由前刹那的因「生出」。本文旨在分析及探討上述的證。筆者以支持寂護的場闡釋，嘗試以回應反對者的批評，證存在者只有「被產生的」和「刹那的」存在物，所謂能持續存在的存在物，實際上並存在。筆者並進一步澄清，瑜伽中觀派系統內的刹那的存在物並非獨存在，其必然伴隨的關係也違反佛教的緣起觀。此以因果關係為概建構的主張，也能與中觀的世俗諦同時成。 / The present study is an examination of the Buddhist Yogācāra-Madhyamaka argument for momentariness in the sthirabhāvaparīkā chapter of Śāntarakita’s Tattvasagraha with reference to Kamalaśīla’s Tattvasagraha-pañjikā. The theory of momentariness holds that produced things only exist within one moment; they do not exist before or after. Realists such as Nyāya and Vaiśeika, on the other hand, regard universal, substance, and permanent existents alike as the basis of the existence of things. Since these existents can persist in the next moment, things in the next moment are considered to be produced or destroyed by them through the means of relation. For this reason, the realists hold that things must exist through production. The destruction of these things must also be produced. As the cause of destruction exists apart from these things, the latter will persist if the former is not present. The theory of momentariness will be refuted if this realist conception of existence is accepted. / The present study seeks to argue for the theory of momentariness with the following: (1) whatever is produced takes “destruction as its nature; (2) whatever exists produces its effect immediately in the same moment; (3) existents in the former moment and those in the latter moment are related to each other through a relation of necessary concomitance; they are not related through a causal relation in which the effect is produced out from the cause. The conclusion of the argument of this study is that whatever exists must be produced and momentary; the non-produced or the non-momentary things, which are considered to be persistent by the opponents, in fact have no existence. This study also points out that momentary existents under the Yogācāra-Madhyamaka system do not exist independently. Their necessary concomitant relation does not violate the Buddhist doctrine of dependent origination. And as the theory of momentariness considers causal relation conceptually constructed, this theory is also compatible with Madhyamika’s conventional truth. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / 方麗欣. / "2012年10月". / "2012 nian 10 yue". / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2013. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 94-99). / Abstract in Chinese and English. / Fang Lixin. / Chapter 第一章 --- 引言 --- p.7 / Chapter 第一部份 --- 基本問題 --- p.7 / Chapter 第二部份 --- 存在物與刹那 --- p.9 / Chapter 第三部份 --- 本文重點 --- p.13 / Chapter 第四部份 --- 研究方法 --- p.17 / Chapter 第二章 --- 「被產生的」存在物以「滅」為本性 --- p.18 / Chapter 第一部份 --- 正理派對「滅」的理解 --- p.19 / Chapter 第二部份 --- 以「滅」為本性 --- p.21 / Chapter 第三部份 --- 「被產生的」存在物之必然滅 --- p.23 / Chapter 第四部份 --- 「他因」不能產生「被產生的」存在物之滅 --- p.25 / Chapter 第一節 --- 滅為「非實非不實」 / Chapter 第二節 --- 滅的時間性 / Chapter 第三章 --- 「存在」即有「即時的因果效力」 --- p.39 / Chapter 第一部份 --- 反對者之存在的標準及其理論困難 --- p.41 / Chapter 第二部份 --- 以因果效力作為存在的標準 --- p.46 / Chapter 第一節 --- 因果效力之雙重意義 / Chapter 第二節 --- 因果效力與現量的關係 / Chapter 第三部份 --- 「不是被產生的」存在物沒有因果效力 --- p.55 / Chapter 第四章 --- 存在物間的關係 --- p.64 / Chapter 第一部份 --- 刹那的存在物與「變化」 --- p.66 / Chapter 第二部份 --- Yogasena的批評從中觀立場出發 --- p.70 / Chapter 第一節 --- 《中論》對刹那滅學說的批評 / Chapter 第二節 --- Yogasena的批評 / Chapter 第三節 --- Yogasena之批評的影響 / Chapter 第三部份 --- 回應 --- p.78 / Chapter 第一節 --- Yogasena對《攝》中刹那滅理論的誤解 / Chapter 第二節 --- 中觀並不否定存在物為刹那滅 / Chapter 第五章 --- 結論 --- p.89 / 略號及參考書目 --- p.94

L' ENGROGUIMENT DE LES CUCURBITÀCIES: DIAGNÓSTIC I MICROSCOPIA DE LES RELACIONS VIRUS-PLANTA I VIRUS-VECTOR La malaltia de l'engroguiment de les cucurbitàcies, de gran importància, en els cultius del sud-est espanyol, està produïda per dos Closteroviridae transmesos per mosques blanques, el virus del fals engroguiment de la remolatxa (BPYV) i el virus de l'engroguiment enanitzant de les cucurbitàcies (CYSDV). BPYV és transmès específicament i de forma semipersistent per Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Westwood) i CYSDV per Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius). En els darrers anys, encara que s'ha produït un gran avenç en el coneixement a escala molecular, alguns dels aspectes de la relació virus-planta i virus-vector són encara desconeguts. L' objecte d'aquest treball ha estat l'estudi de les relacions que BPYV i CYSDV estableixen amb les cucurbitàcies i les mosques blanques per ajustar-lo a un dels models virus-planta-vector descrit. Es varen establir tres grups d'estudis: (i) en el primer, destinat a l'establiment d'una tècnica de diagnòstic i a la propagació de BPYV i CYSDV, durant dos anys es varen realitzar mostreigs dirigits a plantes amb símptomes d'engroguiment en cultius protegits de meló i cogombre del sud-est espanyol i en cultius de meló a l'aire lliure de la zona de Lleida, varen evaluar-se distintes tècniques de diagnòstic i es realitzaren assaigs de transmissió amb els vectors, (ii) en el segon grup varen abordar-se les realcions virus-planta, mitjançant estudis citopatològics i de localització en els que va assajar-se immunomarcatge amb or coloidal (IGL) i hibridació in situ (ISH) amb sondes d'ARN i (iii) en el tercer varen estudiar-se les relacions virus-vector, mitjançant comparació de l'anatomia interna de T.vaporariorum i de B. tabaci relacionada amb la transmissió, varen assajar-se dues tècniques d'inclusió en resina per IGL i es realitzaren proves de IGL i ISH.En el sud-est espanyol, l'engroguiment està associat amb BPYV i CYSDV, detectant-se aquest darrer en un major nombre de mostres. En canvi, a l'àrea de Lleida, aquests virus no es detecten i únicament trobem virus transmesos per pugons,essent el virus del mosaic del cogombre (CMV) el més abundant, juntament amb el virus del mosaic de la sindria soca 2 (WMV-2) i el virus del mosaic groc del carbassó (ZYMV). En aquesta zona, els casos d'engroguiment no associats a virus són majors quan les mostres són recollides al final del cultiu. Els estudis citopatològics realitzats amb BPYV i CYSDV mostraren la presència d'alteracions a les cèl.lules del floema, a les que es va observar la proliferació de vesícules membranoses citoplasmàtiques amb distinta morfologia, grans agregats de partícules virals, hipertròfia en mitocòndries i la desorganització de les membranes dels cloroplasts. Cap dels virus estudiats produeix la formació de dipòsits cònics de material electrodens a la zona del plasmalema característics del virus de l'engroguiment infecciós de l'enciam (LIYV), membre tipus dels Crinivirus. Els resultats de les proves de IGL i IHS varen confirmar la limitació d'aquests virus al floema. Les proteïnes de coberta de CYSDV i LIYV es varen detectar en el citoplasma de les cél.lulas acompanyants del floema; i mitjançant ISH, BPYV i CYSDV varen localitzar-se en el citoplasma d'aquestes cèl.lules.El canal alimentari de T. vaporariorum presenta unes característiques anatòmiques semblants a les descrites i observades a B. tabaci, de manera que les diferències en el seu comportament com a insectes vectors no poden explicar-se amb aquest tipus d'observacions. Les proves d' IGL mostraren la localització tant de CYSDV com de LIYV en els trams inicials del canal alimentari i de l'intestí anterior del seu insecte vector, B. tabaci, descartant-se la possible circulació d'aquests virus a l'interior del cos de l' insecte. En base als resultats obtinguts, el model de transmissió que més s'ajusta a la transmissió semipersistent dels Crinivirus per mosques blanques és el de ingestió-regurgitació. / EL AMARILLEO DE LAS CUCURBITÁCEAS: DIAGNÓSTICO Y MICROSCOPÍA DE LAS RELACIONES VIRUS-PLANTA Y VIRUS-VECTOR La enfermedad del amarilleo de las cucurbitáceas, de gran importancia en los cultivos del sudeste español, está producida por dos Closteroviridae transmitidos por moscas blancas, el virus del falso amarilleo de la remolacha (BPYV) y el virus del amarilleo enanizante de las cucurbitáceas (CYSDV). BPYV es transmitido específicamente y de modo semipersistente por Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Westwood) y CYSDV por Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius). En los últimos años, aunque se ha producido un gran avance en el conocimiento a escala molecular, algunos de los aspectos de la relación virus-planta y virus-vector son todavía desconocidos. El objeto de este trabajo ha sido el estudio de las relaciones que BPYV y CYSDV establecen con las cucurbitáceas y las moscas blancas para ajustarlo a uno de los modelos virus-planta-vector descrito. Se abordaron tres grupos de estudios: (i) en el primero, destinado al establecimiento de una técnica de diagnóstico y a la propagación de BPYV y CYSDV, durante dos años se realizaron muestreos dirigidos a plantas con síntomas de amarilleo en cultivos protegidos de melón y pepino del sudeste español y en cultivos de melón al aire libre de la zona de Lleida, se evaluaron distintas técnicas de diagnóstico y se realizaron ensayos de transmisión con los vectores, (II) en el segundo se abordaron las relaciones virus-planta, mediante estudios citopatológicos y de localización en los que se ensayó inmunomarcaje con oro coloidal (IGL) e hibridación in situ (ISH) con sondas de ARN; y (III) en el tercero se estudiaron las relaciones virus-vector, se realizó un estudio comparativo de la anatomía interna de T.vaporariorum y de B. tabaci relacionada con la transmisión, se ensayaron dos técnicas de inclusión para IGL y se realizaron pruebas de IGL e ISH.En el sudeste español, el amarilleo está asociado con BPYV y CYSDV, detectándose este último en un mayor número de muestras. En cambio, en el área de Lleida, éstos virus no se detectan y únicamente están presentes virus transmitidos por pulgones, siendo el virus del mosaico del pepino (CMV) el más abundante, junto con el virus del mosaico de la sandía cepa 2 (WMV-2) y el virus del mosaico amarillo del calabacín (ZYMV). En esta zona, los casos de amarilleo no asociados a virus son mayores cuando las muestras son recogidas al final del cultivo. Los estudios citopatológicos realizados con BPYV y CYSDV mostraron la presencia de alteraciones en las células del floema, en las que se observó la proliferación de vesículas membranosas citoplasmáticas con distinta morfología, grandes agregados de partículas virales, hipertrofia en mitocondrias y la desorganización de las membranas de los cloroplastos. Ninguno de los virus estudiados produce la formación de depósitos cónicos de material electrodenso en la zona del plasmalema característicos del virus del amarilleo infeccioso de la lechuga (LIYV), miembro tipo de los Crinivirus. Los resultados de las pruebas de IGL e IHS confirmaron la limitación de estos virus al floema. Las proteínas de cubierta de CYSDV y LIYV se detectaron en el citoplasma de las células acompañantes del floema; y mediante ISH, BPYV y CYSDV se localizaron en el citoplasma de estas células.El canal alimentario de T. vaporariorum presenta unas características anatómicas semejantes a las de B. tabaci, por lo que las diferencias en su comportamiento como insectos vectores no se pueden explicar con este tipo de observaciones. Las pruebas de IGL mostraron la localización tanto de CYSDV como de LIYV en los tramos iniciales del canal alimentario y del intestino anterior de su insecto vector, B. tabaci, descartándose la posible circulación de estos virus en el interior del cuerpo del insecto. En base a los resultados obtenidos, el modelo de transmisión que más se ajusta a la transmisión semipersistente de los Crinivirus por moscas blancas es el de ingestión-regurgitación. / CUCURBITS YELLOWING: DIAGNOSIS AND MICROSCOPY OF VIRUS-HOST AND VIRUS-VECTOR RELATIONSHIPSCucurbit yellowing disease, specially important in souteastern Spain, is caused by two Closteroviridae transmitted by whiteflies, Beet pseudo-yellows virus (BPYV) and Cucurbit yellow stunting disorder virus (CYSDV). BPYV is transmitted specifically in a semipersistent manner by Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Westwood) (Homoptera:Aleyrodidae) and CYSDV by Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius). In recent years, despite much progress in their knowledge at molecular level, some aspects of the relationships between viruses and their host, and vectors remain still unknown. The objective of this work was to study the relationships of BPYV and CYSDV with cucurbits and with whiteflies to adjust a described virus-host-vector model. Three groups of experiences were envisaged. (I) In the first one, with the goal to find a suitable procedure for detection of BPYV and CYSDV and to propagate these viruses, cucumber and melon plants with yellowing symptoms from southeastern Spain greenhouses and from melon crops growing open field in Lleida basin were collected for two years; different detection techniques were tested and vector transmission assays were made. (II) In the second one, virus-host relations were envisaged through cytopathological and localisation, by immunogold labelling (IGL) and in situ hibridisation (ISH) with ARN probes, studies. (III) And in the third group, virus-vector relationships were studied, a comparative study of the alimentary canal, that is related with virus transmission, of T. vaporariorum and B. tabaci was made; two embedding protocols for IGL were compared; and IGL and ISH were made.In southeastern Spain, yellowing symptoms are associated with BPYV and CYSDV infections. The number of CYSDV infected samples was larger than BPYV ones. In Lledia basin, BPYV and CYSDV were not detected, although aphid-transmitted viruses are present. Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV), Watermelon mosaic virus-2 (WMV-2) and Zucchini yellows mosaic virus (ZYMV) were the most abundant viruses found. Herein, the number of yellowing plants testing negative was higher when surveys were conducted at the end of the growing season.Ultrastructural changes induced by BPYV and CYSDV were detected in phloem cells, exhibiting formation of membranous cytoplasmic vesicles with different morphology, accumulation of virus particles in large masses, hypertrophied mitochondrion and degeneration of chloroplasts. No conical electrondense plasmalemma deposits, typical of Lettuce infectious yellows virus (LIYV) -the type member of the genus Crinivirus-; were observed in BPYV and CYSDV infections. IGL and ISH analyses confirmed that BPYV and CYSDV are phloem-limited. CYSDV and LIYV coat proteins were detected in the cytoplasm of companion cells cytoplasm; and by ISH, BPYV and CYSDV were localised in the cytoplasm.The alimentary canal of T. vaporariorum shows anatomical characteristics similars to those of B. tabaci, so their different vector behaviour could not be explained with this kind of observations. CYSDV and LIYV are detected in the initial part of the alimentary canal and foregut of B. tabaci, thus excluding the possible circulation of these viruses in the vector's body.The data obtained suggest that the most adapted transmission model to whiteflies transmitted Crinivirus in a semipersistent manner is the ingestion-regurgitation model, although some factors involved in this process are still unknown.

The interactions of the non steroidal anti-inflammatory drug celecoxib with pure and cholesterol containing distearoyl phosphatidylcholine multilamellar vesicles were studied using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry and turbidity technique at 440 nm. The results reveal that celecoxib exerts opposing effects on membrane order in a concentration dependent manner while cholesterol disorders and orders the membrane in the gel and liquid crystalline phase, respectively. Ternary mixtures of DSPC/Cholesterol/celecoxib behave similar to cholesterol with a small effect of celecoxib. While celecoxib decreases fluidity of the DSPC membranes, cholesterol shows an opposite effect, and in ternary mixtures, a dominant effect of cholesterol is observed. Celecoxib induces opposite effects on the hydration status of the carbonyl groups in the binary system whereas / cholesterol induces hydrogen bonding around this group. An evidence of phase separation has also been observed for all three systems (DSPC/celecoxib, DSPC/Chol, and DSPC/Chol/celecoxib). In addition, a possible location of celecoxib in the interfacial region of the membrane has been proposed. Finally, penetration of celecoxib into the hydrophobic core of the ternary system at high cholesterol concentrations and formation of a new phase has also been suggested. Thus, depending on the concentration used, celecoxib induces significant changes in the biophysical properties of membranes that may aid in understanding its mechanism of action. Furthermore, highly complex interactions take place in ternary membrane systems and further investigations are needed to explore them in detail.

TAXONOMIC STUDIES ON THE GENUS SALVIA L. (LABIATAE) IN CENTRAL ANATOLIA, TURKEY SAFI BAGHERPOUR Ph.D., Department of Biological Sciences Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Musa Dogan June 2010, 203 pages This research study is a revision of the genus Salvia (Labiatae) in Central Anatolia. The author has carried out extensive research studies conducted in a 3 year period starting from June 2005 by collecting specimens from all the localities in Central Anatolia, Turkey. Specimens collected from Turkey by the other researchers and kept either in Turkey or abroad were also examined. The samples were studied using their root, stem and leaf morphology including essential characteristics of flowers. Using this information dendograms were obtained and taxa cut off lines were drawn. The cross sectional preparations of stem and leaf were observed for taxonomical evaluation. Salvia taxa leaf surface, flower organs and seed surface were studied for understanding the diagnostic value of their micro morphological characteristics. Anatomical sections of the specimens were analyzed under light microscope and the data was used for further taxa separations. The Salvia species were further investigated for their pollen characteristics such as surface view and dimensions. Numeric taxonomic methods were used for constructing a natural infrageneric grouping in the genus as far as the species allows. Using software and computer grouping each sample was ranked and placed into specific taxa. First the samples were identified by using the species key given in Turkish Flora. According to the Turkish Flora there were two ways to identify samples. One way based on the stamen features and the other based on the leaves and flowers. For nomenclatural reasons the specimens were cross checked with the existing type specimens known from Turkey and kept in some international herbaria. This thesis is formed by two sections. The first section is comprised of introduction, materials and methods and basic findings. Basic finding are the result of morphological, anatomical, palynological and ecological investigations. In the second section of the thesis, a revision of Salvia in Central Anatolia, Turkey is given. This includes results of numeric studies and infrageneric grouping. Soil types and habitat characteristics were also studied. Soil samples were taken from the various locations and analyzed for their content. The populations were revisited to determine the sustainability and vulnerability of each taxon. IUCN threat categories were determined based on habitat information and species limitations. The phenological data and relevant field observations were all recorded. In Central Anatolia 43 Salvia species were found. Among the specimens collected from the area one taxon was re-discovered after 116 years.

本文研究的主題是後期印度佛教哲學中關於外部對象是否實在的爭論。主要依據妙護（Śubhagupta）的《成立外部對象論》（Bāhyārthasiddhikārikā)和寂護（Śāntarakita）及其弟子蓮華戒（Kamalaśīla）《攝真實論疏》第23品〈考察外部對象〉兩本文獻。 / 原子論和直接知覺論是妙護素樸實在論的兩大基石。原子是外部對象存在的實體要素，而直接知覺論則為如何認識外部對象提供知識論上的依據。原子是構成外部對象的不可見、不可再分的最小實體，當眾多同種類原子聚集在一起時，它們由於實體性的能力而凝聚成為可認知的「粗大」對象。另一方面，認識的本性是「識別」，就是主體（識）直接認知外部對象。認識本身並不具有對象的形象，只是當認識發生時，它就獲得了與外部對象一致的形象。妙護的知覺論蘊含了外部對象與認識之間確定的因果關係。他以為，對象（原因）與識（結果）必須是兩個不同的東西，結果不能以自身為原因而產生。所以，認識活動一定是以自己之外的其他對象作為原因，後者既是令識生起的條件，同時也給予了識自己的形象。妙護認為「效果作用的一致性」是判斷真知覺與幻覺的標準。所謂「一致性」是指認識通過形象獲得外部對象以及認識對象具有與外部對象一致的特定功能。 / 寂護從觀念論和懷疑論的角度批判妙護的理論並不能證成外部對象的存在。他說，妙護也同意感官體驗直接知覺到的不是原子，而是「粗大」的對象；但他又不能從理論上自洽地解釋單個、無部分的原子是如何過渡到成爲有部分（即空間性）的知覺對象。其次，妙護的直接知覺論也無法證明外部對象與認識之間具有必然的因果聯係。因爲，假如認識的形象原來就不存在，那麽外部對象其實是與認識完全分離的東西，形象既不是令識生起的實體，也不能夠對認識產生實際的作用。換句話說，對象與認識之間不曾發生實質性的關聯。寂護以為認識的本質就是自我意識，如同光的明照性一般，它不是主體（識）去認知對象的二元模式，也不依賴任何外部對象而存在；認識活動中效果作用的一致性則可以通過認識的自我相續來解釋。 / In the present thesis, I discuss a debate on the reality of external objects in late Indian Buddhist philosophy. I focus on two texts, one is "The Establishment of External Objects (Bāhyārthasiddhikārikā)" written by Śubhagupta, the other is a chapter named as "The Examination of The External Objects (Bahirarthaparīkā)" in "Commentary on The Summary of Truth (Tattvasagrahapañjikā)" written by Śāntarakita and his disciple Kamalaśīla. / Śubhagupta’s point of view can be regarded as the naive realism. He thinks that external objects are constituted by the aggregation of atoms which are the ontological substances. An individual atom is invisible and without parts. Thus, atoms cannot become the cognitive objects until they are aggregated together as a gross because of the power of substance. The gross arouses the form of blue etc. in cognition which is formless in nature. Although the form of blue is not real, it is based on the real substance and consistent with external objects. The characteristic of cognition is to grasp external objects directly. According to Śubhagupta, cognition cannot be produced by itself; it must be aroused by other things, just like sprouts cannot be produced by themselves but by the seeds in reality. External object served as a cause should be satisfied with two conditions: it is a real substance which has real capacity and a real perceivable object. Based on this theory, Śubhagupta believes that the existence of the external objects is a standard to distinguish the perception from the hallucination such as a dream, because the object of perception must be consistent with the external object. The consistency means that external object is acquired by the cognition and the cognitive object has the definite function according to a real object. / On the stand point of idealism and skepticism, Śāntarakita argues that the gross of atoms should not have shape as well, because the atoms are without parts in nature. Moreover, if the cognitive forms only come from external objects which are material substances, then cognition cannot recognize anything; because the matter and the cognition are totally different entities and cognition itself is formless in nature. Śāntarakita argues that if a form in cognition is not real at all, it will neither be a substance to arouse the cognition nor have the power to make effects on cognition. That is to say, the external objects cannot be the causes of cognition, because there is not causal relationship between them. Thus, the cognitive objects should not coincide with external objects which have not been established yet. The consistency of definite function of objects will be explained by the continuity of our own consciousness. Śāntarakita believes that the cognition in nature is self-cognizing, just like a light illuminates itself. The cognitive form and the cognition are definitely perceived together as one entity. They are not separated from each other. Thus, the cognition itself does not rely on any causality such as the relationship between the grasping and grasped aspects. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / 茅宇凡. / Parallel title from added title page. / Thesis (Ph.D.) Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2015. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 143-157). / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / Mao Yufan.

Ubiquitylation is an important post-translational modification and can be reversed by the action of deubiquitinating (DUB) enzymes. The ubiquitylation and deubiquitylation of target proteins are significant in terms of regulating cellular events such as protein degradation, signal transduction, vesicle trafficking, DNA repair and apoptosis. Chromosomal band 17q23 is frequently amplified in breast cancers and harbors a predicted ubiquitin specific protease gene, USP32 (ubiquitin specific protease 32). Given its potential role in breast cancer, we aimed to characterize USP32 for its potential DUB activity. Bioinformatic analysis of USP32 and known yeast and mouse DUBs suggested presence of Cys-His domains which are common in active DUBs of the USP superfamily. Our in vivo and in vitro DUB activity assays revealed that USP32 was indeed an active deubiquitinating enzyme. To investigate its substrate specificity and kinetic properties, USP32 was expressed in insect cell culture to be isolated and purified. Using isolated USP32 protein, diubiquitin assay was performed with all seven types of diubiquitin (K6, K11, K27, K29, K33, K48 and K63) as well as linear diubiquitin. Results showed that USP32 was able to cleave all seven types of ubiquitin linkages with higher cleavage efficiency for K6, K11, K48 and K63-linked diubiquitin. Moreover, kinetic parameters, Km, kcat and kcat/ Km, suggested that full length protein had lower affinity for potential substrates and lower catalytic activity compared to the catalytic domain alone. These data suggested the importance of USP32 tertiary structure and possible role of other non DUB domains (e.g. EF hand domain) which may be regulated by an as of unknown mechanism in cells. Further investigations are underway to understand the functions of USP32 in cells and how it may contribute to breast tumorigenesis.

Synthetic CpG containing oligodeoxynucleotides (ODNs) are recognized by Toll like Receptor 9 (TLR9) and induce a strong pro-inflamatory immune response. To date, four different CpG ODN classes have been described. K-Class ODNs (also known as B-ODN) are potent B cell activators and stimulate TNF

Bacteria, nanoflagellates and ciliates constitute the microbial loop and it is a model of the pathways of carbon and nutrient cycling through microbial components of pelagic aquatic communities. The current study comprised of a comparative study of the microbial food web community along north to south latitudinal gradient using space for time susbtitute, monitoring and mesocosms experiments with contrasting nutrient and predation states. We investigated effect of fish predation through different zooplankton taxa on microbial loop community with in situ food web experiments in 14 lakes along north to south latitudinal gradient. The effect of seasonality was also determined by monitoring in Lakes Eymir and Mogan between 2010 and 2011. Effects of hydrology and fish through microbial community was studied in mesocosms in Lake Eymir. An implication of global warming along with eutrophication on microbial community was further explored in warmed and nutrient enriched artificial ponds during 4 months in Silkeborg, Denmark. Our results revealed that temperature, hydrology, fish, macrophytes and seasonality affected the top down control of zooplankton and bottom up control of nutrients on microbial loop and interactions between controls and increase in these controls had a strong negative impact on the contribution and biomass of microbial loop and change the interactions within microbial community. Global warming may also effect the impact of top down and bottom up controls through increasing eutrophication, temperature, change in hydrology and zooplankton composition and in a consequence of that efficiency of microbial loop may decrease in the future warmer, drier and eutrophic conditions.

In an earlier project completed in our laboratory a seasonal fluctuation in Phosphoglucomutase (PGM) phenotype frequencies was found, so that the winter bees were almost all heterozygotes and long lived than the summer bees among which homozygotes were significantly at high frequencies at Pgm locus. Same results were obtained in populations of three subspecies, A. m. meda, A. m. caucasica, and A. m. carnica from different climatic regions. In the current study environmental cues related with seasonal change in PGM phenotype frequency was examined along with the correlation between PGM heterozygosity and overwintering success. Cessation of food influx was found to be effective by itself as an environmental cue that causes a sudden and sharp increase in PGM heterozygosity. In addition to that, PGM heterozygosity of the colonies with greater overwintering success was found to be significantly higher than the ones with intermediate or low overwintering success. Benefiting from the previous studies and the results of current study, ethyl oleate was suggested as a chemical signal that functions in the regulation of PGM heterozygosity.