This thesis describes a computer tool that was developed to compare different combinations of photovoltaic panels, solar thermal collectors and combined heat and power technologies for building applications to find the option with the lowest cost of emissions reduction. The novelty of this computer tool is that it addresses the uncertainty of building energy load profiles in the sizing of renewable energy and CHP technologies by applying the Monte Carlo Method. A database of historical building energy load profiles was collated for this purpose. However, little domestic hot water load profiles were found in the literature. Therefore, as part of this study, a survey was also carried out to collect some domestic hot water load profile data. The survey consisted of a questionnaire and monitoring study. The questionnaire consisted of two parts: a general questionnaire about the dwelling and a diary study. The questionnaire collected general information about the dwelling, enabling the load profiles collected to be classified into different building type categories. In the diary study the hot water consumption patterns were recorded. The hot water energy consumption data was also obtained from direct monitoring using temperature sensors attached to the hot water pipes of the different appliances to record when and from which appliance hot water was used throughout the day in the dwellings. Load profiles were formed using this data and the data from the diary study in the questionnaire together with typical hot water usages of different appliances which were calculated from hot water usage times and flow rates of the different appliances that were recorded by a clamp-on flow meter. The data collected from the survey and the literature was loaded into the computer tool database.

This thesis explores how – over a twenty-year period – the Tongji University-based journal Time + Architecture (Shidai Jianzhu) has engaged in the presentation and production of critical architecture in the contemporary Chinese cultural context. My principal stance is that the journal’s editorial agenda to publish innovative and exploratory work by emerging architects based in private design firms who were committed to new material, theoretical and pedagogical practices has resulted in a particular form of critical practice – what I have termed an ‘intermediate criticality’ – as a response to the particular constraints of the Chinese cultural and political context. The journal’s publications displayed a ‘dual critique’ – a critical attitude to the dominant modes of commercial building practice, characterised by rapid and large-scale urban expansion, and an alternative publishing practice focusing on emerging, independent architectural practitioners through the active integration of theoretical debates, architectural projects, and criticisms. I support this contention following a careful review and analysis of the history and programme of the journal. This is achieved through a focus on the journal’s singular publication on a wide range of topics. By situating the work of emerging architects, including Yung Ho Chang, Wang Shu, Liu Jiakun and Urbanus, among others, within the context of the journal’s special thematic editions on experimental architecture, exhibition, group design, new urban space and professional system, I attempt to discover what contribution the journal has made to the emergence of a critical architecture, in the context of how it was articulated, debated, presented and perhaps even ‘produced’ within the pages of the publication itself. I argue that the protagonists of critical architecture such as architects, critics, academics, editors, publishers and clients, among others, had endeavoured to construct an alternative mode of form and space with strong aesthetic and socio-political implications in such a way as to resolutely repudiate the predominant production of architecture in the urban process under the current Chinese socialist market economy. To rebel against certain forms of domination and suppression by capital and power is by no means to completely reject them; rather, it is to resourcefully use those progressive forces within the dominant structure to transform the problematic reality. This critical position, oscillating between cultural commitment and social, economic, and political circumstances, and uniquely manifest within the pages of the Time + Architecture journal, is what I have described as an ‘intermediate criticality.’

Having arguably led the world in the transition to a high carbon economy, much of Wales today is economically and socially deprived. Even so, a devolved Welsh Government has set ambitious targets to reduce carbon emissions in the devolved areas, while creating employment and economic opportunities, reducing fuel poverty, thereby helping to solve Wales’ entrenched social and economic problems. A low carbon transition in the built environment is critical to achieve such targets. This PhD study aims to provide theoretically informed and empirically grounded insights into the development of low carbon building technologies in Wales through examining how the functions of the innovation systems of two selected emerging technologies i.e. ‘Welsh grown timber for construction’ (WTC) and ‘building integrated solar energy systems’ (BISE) have been fulfilled. Having first established a bespoke analytical framework, the functional patterns of the two technological innovation systems (TIS) are documented, assessed and compared. The study further explores how the functional analyses may offer a bottom-up perspective on the policy implications for regional governance in Wales, which might alter the functional patterns, and improve the innovation capability of relevant Welsh organisations. The functional analyses of the WTC and BISE TIS shows that, although both TISs have reached their formative phases in Wales, there is no guarantee that either system will eventually move onto the phase of market diffusion, due to the inherent system weaknesses and uncertainties likely arising in technology, policy-making, and market. Whereas regional governance in Wales can introduce policy interventions, they matter only when breakouts from certain forms of institutional ‘path-dependence’ are induced. In this respect, the thesis concludes by discussing four streams of policy-thinking that may instigate different pathways in Wales, namely: technology foresight; the regulation-induced innovation hypothesis; demand-oriented policy measures; and, support for small business innovations through, e.g. R&D consortia.

La réalité virtuelle (RV) va révolutionner de nombreux domaines comme le domaine médical, industriel, architectural, etc. C'est devenu un élément important dans la phase de développement d'une solution, notamment dans le domaine architectural. Que ce soit pour la commercialisation ou la revue de projet, la RV permet de faire des visites virtuelles de maisons visualisées à l'échelle réelle en environnement virtuel (EV). Aujourd'hui, l'architecte dispose d'un véritable outil de commercialisation en proposant aux acheteurs potentiels des visites virtuelles de maisons. Lors de ces visites virtuelles, le client peut avoir une idée de la maison. Avec la visualisation à l'échelle 1:1 le client a la possibilité d'explorer la maison et peut ainsi se projeter plus facilement dans la maison pour prendre plus facilement des décisions. L'espoir est que cette visite virtuelle puisse conduire plus rapidement à une signature de précontrat. Par ailleurs, lors du processus de conception, l'architecte peut effectuer une revue de projet en EV avec le client afin de le guider dans ses choix et d'affiner le recueil des besoins. À l'issue de cette revue, ensemble, ils valident le plan de la maison en termes de taille et d'agencement des pièces, de position des fenêtres, etc. Par conséquent, la RV permet un gain de temps et d'argent considérable aux architectes. Les décisions prises en EV sont généralement basées sur la perception des distances et des volumes. Par conséquent, l’efficacité des décisions prises dépend de la capacité des visiteurs à porter un jugement sans biais sur ce qu’ils voient dans l’EV par rapport à l’environnement réel correspondant. Plusieurs études ont montré que l'estimation des distances en EV est différente de l'estimation en environnement réel. De multiples facteurs peuvent être à l'origine de ce problème, comme le dispositif d'affichage, le champ de vision restreint, la qualité graphique, etc. Malgré les différentes études consacrées à cette problématique, les causes de ce phénomène restent diverses et mal identifiées. Notre travail s'inscrit dans le cadre d'un projet architectural : le projet CIMBEES. Ce projet vise à intégrer la RV dans le processus de vente/achat et de conception au travers de la visite virtuelle et de la revue de projet en EV. Notre travail consiste à concevoir et à évaluer l'outil de revue de projet architectural en EV. La phase de conception consiste à proposer un outil de revue de projet permettant la visualisation des maquettes numériques à l'échelle réelle et offrant une interaction qui répond aux besoins des architectes. Au cours de cette phase nous avons développé un outil de revue de projet et nous avons modélisé les maquettes numériques nécessaires à partir de plans réels de maison.Dans la phase d'évaluation de l'outil de revue de projet architectural, nous nous sommes intéressés à la problématique de la perception des distances en EV. L'objectif de cette évaluation est d'identifier et d'étudier les facteurs les plus importants pour l'outil afin de proposer des paramètres adaptés à notre contexte applicatif (les visites virtuelles). Pour ce faire, nous avons effectué une étude expérimentale qui porte sur l'étude de l'influence de trois facteurs sur la perception des distances : 1) le profil cognitif des utilisateurs, 2) le contexte environnemental et 3) la vitesse de navigation [...] / Virtual reality (VR) will revolutionize many fields such as medicine, industry, architecture, etc. It has become an important element in the development of a solution, particularly in the architectural field. Whether for marketing or project review, VR allows virtual visits of homes in virtual environment (VE) at real scale. Today, the architect has a real marketing tool by providing to potential customer virtual visits of homes. During these virtual visits, the customer can get an idea of the house. With the visualization at scale 1: 1, the customer has the opportunity to explore the house and he can easier project himself into the house to take decisions more easily. The hope is that, this virtual visit would more quickly lead to a signing agreement.Furthermore, during the design process, the architect can make a project review in VE with customer to guide his choices and refine the collection of needs. Following this review, together, they validate the plan of the house in terms of size and layout of rooms, window position, etc. Therefore, the VR allows considerable time and money saving for architects. Decisions taken in VE are generally based on the perception of distances and volumes. Therefore, the effectiveness of the decisions depends on the ability of customers to make judgments about what they see in the VE similar to the judgments they would have made in the corresponding real environment. Several studies have shown that the estimation of distances in VE is different from the estimation in real environment. Several factors can be the source of this problem such as the display device, the limited field of view, graphical quality, etc. Despite these studies, factors that cause this phenomenon remain unclear, and diverse. Our work is part of an architectural project: CIMBEES project. This project aims to integrate VR in the process of selling / buying and of the design through virtual visits and project review in VE. Our work is to design and evaluate architectural project review tool. The design stage is to suggest a project review tool for the visualization of digital mockups at real scale in VE and providing interaction that meets the needs of architects. During this stage we developed a project review tool and we modeled necessary digital mockups from real house plans. In the evaluation stage of the architectural project review tool, we were interested at the problem of the perception of distances in VE. The aim of this evaluation is to identify and to study the most important factors for the tool, to propose suitable parameters for our application context (virtual visits). To do this, we conducted an experimental study that focuses on the study of the influence of three factors on the perception of distances: 1) the cognitive profile of users, 2) the environmental context and 3) the speed of navigation. [...]