This thesis examines the changing relationship between the material culture of music (in the form of recorded music objects) and memory (as it is sedimented in, and mediated by, the work of a selection of British independent record labels). The principal aim of this work is to explore the significant but often-overlooked material paradigm of recorded music, from Edison’s invention of the phonograph in 1877 up until the early twenty-first century, increasingly characterised by the digital archiving, collecting and consumption of music. Drawing from a broad range of cultural theorists (including Benjamin, Straw, Sterne, Kittler, Gitelman and Huyssen), this research seeks to situate recorded sound within broader discourses on memory and mediation, technology and cultural transmission. The thesis is structured around the analyses of several British independent record labels from the recent past and the present: Sarah Records (1987- 1995), Ghost Box Records (2004-) and reissue record labels, including Finders Keepers (2004-). By focusing on specific record labels and situated configurations of the material culture of music, both physical and digital, I identify and map various aspects of the music object and clarify the particular socio-technological contexts within which such configurations arise.

For centuries, the contrast between ‘live’ performance and its representation in scripts and scores, along with visual depictions and verbal descriptions (particularly the journalistic review), has been relatively straightforward. As Ben Jonson writes in his preface to <i>The Masque of Blackness</i>, he publishes the work because the splendour of the performance could not last. Although scripts, along with music scores and dance notation, often have an anterior function to performance, their ‘representational’ role is also significant. In order to exist beyond the moment of its creation live performance has always needed representing in some more enduring form. However, in the last hundred years a more complex relationship has developed between live performance and the representation, or even creation, of performance by various technological methods (film, audio-tape etc). The ability of technology to present ‘non live’ performances challenges the status of all representations of live performance, what languages (visual, verbal, or other) do justice to communicating the unique qualities of the ‘live’? This thesis addresses the issue of ‘liveness’, aiming to describe and analyse how the live is represented in various media (largely in the last two decades) and to evaluate components of good practice in representing liveness. Chapter One investigates the relationship between live and non live performances, focusing attention on ‘live’ as a disputed term. This enquiry identifies a distinct perception of liveness, present in our cultural experience and represented in discourse. Chapter Two examines sociological and practical attempts to quantify this perception, and looks at how the experience of liveness is made manifest and meaningful through ‘audience talk’. To take this further, this enquiry applies discourse analysis to some original qualitative audience research. Chapter Three examines attempts to represent live performance in a range of media (photography, archiving, notation, video-recording), considering how a desire to counter the transience of liveness gives rise to a significance urgency to document performance. The thesis proposes that, across the spectrum of media considered in these chapters, the methods and practices of representation constitute in their own right a positive cultural valuation of liveness.

This thesis is an exploration and problematization of the practice of lipsynching to prerecorded song in both professional and vernacular contexts, covering over a century of diverse artistic practices from early sound cinema through to the current popularity of vernacular internet lipsynching videos. This thesis examines the different ways in which the practice provides a locus for discussion about musical authenticity, challenging as well as re-confirming attitudes towards how technologically-mediated audio-visual practices represent musical performance as authentic or otherwise. It also investigates the phenomenon in relation to the changes in our relationship to musical performance as a result of the ubiquity of recorded music in our social and private environments, and the uses to which we put music in our everyday lives. This involves examining the meanings that emerge when a singing voice is set free from the necessity of inhabiting an originating body, and the ways in which under certain conditions, as consumers of recorded song, we draw on our own embodiment to imagine “the disembodied”. The main goal of the thesis is to show, through the study of lipsynching, an understanding of how we listen to, respond to, and use recorded music, not only as a commodity to be consumed but as a culturally-sophisticated and complex means of identification, a site of projection, introjection, and habitation, and, through this, a means of personal and collective creativity.

The advent of sound recording in the late nineteenth-century has altered fundamentally how music is made, distributed and experienced. The technology around the record has advanced considerably since then, be it through improvements in sound quality, spatial presentation or listener convenience. The form of the sound-structure contained on the record, however, has seen very little change; it remains a fixed sound-structure encapsulated within a containing physical or virtual format. Presented here is a body of works that looks toward a next-generation record medium, one which embraces new currents of mobile digital technology and encompasses a change in how sonic content is presented to the listener: instead of containing a single predetermined and fixed sound-structure, this medium would have the capacity to vary the sound-structures it outputs, thereby offering new listening experiences on each playback. If developed correctly, this medium, which I call the open outcome record, might put into place the conditions necessary for a revolution in the creation and experiencing of recorded music. The submitted works are accompanied by this commentary, which begins with consideration of the effects on the musical experience of the fixity privilege, a characteristic common to all fixed media records. The discussion then turns towards the submitted works, with which I chart a path through strategies aimed at freeing the record from its inherent fixity: I start with the reanimation of commercial records by processes extrinsic to them; this is followed by an investigation into the union of recorded materials with live broadcast radio, through low-intervention, record-like interfaces; finally I present Futures EP, an open outcome record designed for the iOS platform, featuring variance-inducing processes that are invoked on playback. I conclude this research by defining the place of the open outcome record amongst other 'post-record' media, and how it might go on to affect our experience of music.

There is increasing evidence that creativity is the result of a dynamic system of interaction where the individual is only one part. Csikszentmihalyi describes a ‘creative system’ that includes three main elements: the domain, the field and the individual (Csikszentmihalyi: 1988, 1997, 1999 & 2004). During creative work, the individual must draw from the domain in order to select a suitable arrangement of ingredients from this body of knowledge and symbol system. This selection of ingredients is then presented to the field, the social organization that recognises, uses and alters the domain, to decide upon its creativity and inclusion into the domain (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997). In the context of rock music this occurs when the completed record is released to the public and the field of rock record production (TV, radio, popular music press, other musicians, engineers and producers etc.) decides upon the record’s novelty and its relevant addition to the domain through an often complex and iterative process. However, little has been written from a creative system’s perspective about what happens inside the recording studio before the record is released. Consequently, the interaction of the creative system’s main elements during smaller acts of creativity, such as the individual generation of ideas, and the collaborative exchanges that take place during group creativity, have been relatively underexplored. This thesis explores the creative process of making a rock recording inside the recording studio using the framework of the creative system. Ethnographic methods such as participant-observation, video and sound recording were used to observe the interaction between the performing musicians, the engineer and the record producer as they collaborated during the recording process. This helped to reveal the complex interaction between the participants and the creative system’s main elements during the creative tasks of performing, engineering and producing. Importantly, it helped to show for the first time that this interaction occurred on both an individual level and a group level, and highlighted how a creative-systems approach can be used to gain a more detailed and in-depth understanding of musical creativity more generally.

This thesis studies the development of the British recording studio from the mid-1960s to the early-1990s. Although there are now a growing number of academic studies of popular music they have, so far, largely failed to study the evolving process by which artists were able to reproduce their music for mass distribution. Consequently, this dissertation investigates the image portrayed of the studio and its utilisation and representation by a combination of human, technological and locational factors. The first part of the thesis constructs an overview of the recording studio industry, as based on contemporary trade journals, in order to produce a traditional historical narrative, so far absent from music’s historiography, which provides the framework in which to place more detailed research. The prominence given by the industry to the ‘progress of technology’ is then compared to the public perception of the recording studio, as shown by the extent and content of its inclusion in the popular culture media of the period, both print and film based. How far the process of producing recorded music managed to permeate through the presentation of a music industry that was becoming increasingly reliant on the image and personality of the artists themselves is then analysed. The second part of the thesis is based on Latour’s concept of actor-networks and deconstructs the recording studio into three main components; technology, architecture and the human element within it. Using one particular studio (Strawberry Recording Studios in Stockport) as being representative of the increasing proportion of small independents in the industry, the further deconstruction of these three components into their constitutional networks, provides the key theme of the dissertation. Consequently, studio technology can be viewed not simply in terms of functional machinery in the studio setting (of Latourian ‘black boxes’) but more as a confusing and intrusive element that was developed, shaped and created by the requirements of those in the studio. And, whilst contemporary society has always elevated the status of the performer in the music industry, the human element in the studio can also be shown to comprise the industrial and social interaction between a wide range of support staff, whose roles and importance altered over time, and the artists themselves. Finally, studio buildings were not just backdrops to the work taking place in them but were seen to extend their boundaries and influence beyond their immediate location through their architecture, interior design and geography. In other words, the recording studio might be seen as the combination of a number of fluctuating networks rather than just as a passive element in the production of recorded music. As a result of the content of the subject being studied, this thesis utilises a number of sources that, in Samuel’s terminology, moves the study away from a ‘fetishization’ of the traditional historical archive towards those of ‘unofficial learning’. Given the immediacy of the period being studied, the personal accounts of those involved in the studio, mainly through the use of oral history, form a major part of the research material.

This thesis focuses on a time in the mid-1960s where practice in the studio changed from a formal arena where previously rehearsed songs were recorded, to a playground where sonic possibilities were explored and sound manipulation became normal practice. This abuse of technology and manipulation of reality became part of the creative process in the studio, providing soundscapes that resonated with the counter-cultural ethos of upsetting the established order, and were adopted by the mainstream during the 1967 ‘Summer of Love”. Following a discussion of current literature, practice as research is applied to demonstrate how interaction with historical technology reveals the performative nature of the tacit knowledge that created many of the aural effects under consideration. The research then focuses through the prism of two case studies, “Eight Miles High” recorded by The Byrds in Los Angeles in January 1966, and “Rain”, recorded by The Beatles in London in April 1966. Through re-enactment of these historical recording sessions, I recreate the closed envirnment of the 1960’s recording studio. By interacting with historical technology and following a similar structure to the original sessions, I investigate how the methodology was influenced by collaborative actions, situational awareness and the demarcation of roles. Post session video analysis reveals the flow of decision making as the sessions unfold, and how interaction with the technological constraints recreates ‘forgotten’ techniques that were deemed everyday practice at the time and were vital to the outcome of the soundscapes. The thesis combines theory and practice to develop an understanding of how the engineers interacted with technology (Polanyi, 1966), often abusing the equipment to create manipulated soundscapes (Akrich and Latour, 1992), and how the sessions responded to musicians demanding innovation and experimentation, circumventing the constraints of established networks of practice (Law and Callon, 1986) during the flow of the recording session (Ingold, 2013).

With the rise of peer-to-peer software like Napster, many predicted that the digitalisation, sharing and dematerialisation of music would bring a radical transformation within the recording industry. This opened up a period of controversy and uncertainty in which competing visions were articulated of technology-induced change, markedly polarised between utopian and dystopian accounts with no clear view of ways forwards. A series of moves followed as various players sought to valorise music on the digital music networks, culminating in an emergence of successful streaming services. This thesis examines why there was a mismatch between initial predictions and what has actually happened in the market. It offers a detailed examination of the innovation processes through which digital technology was implemented and domesticated in the recording industry. This reveals a complex, contradictory and constantly evolving landscape in which the development of digital music distribution was far removed from the smooth development trajectories envisaged by those who saw these developments as following a simple trajectory shaped by technical or economic determinants. The research is based upon qualitative data analysis of fifty five interviews with a wide range of entrepreneurs and innovators, focusing on two successful innovation cases with different points of insertion within the digital recording industry; (1) Spotify: currently the world’s most popular digital music streaming service; and (2) INgrooves: an independent digital music distribution service provider whose system is also used by Universal Music Group. The thesis applies perspectives from the Social Shaping of Technology (“SST”) and its extension into Social Learning in Technological Innovation. It explores the widely dispersed processes of innovation through which the complex set of interactions amongst heterogeneous players who have conflicting interests and differing commitments involved in the digital music networks guided diverging choices in relation to particular market conditions and user requirements. The thesis makes three major contributions to understanding digital disruption in the recording industry. (1) In contrast to prevailing approaches which take P2P distribution as the single point of focus, the study investigates the multiplicity of actors and sites of innovation in the digital recording industry. It demonstrates that the dematerialisation of music did not lead to a simple, e.g. technologically-driven transformation of the industry. Instead a diverse array of realignments had to take place across the music sector to develop digital music valorisation networks. (2) By examining the detailed processes involved in the evolution of digital music services, it highlights the ways in which business models are shaped through a learning process of matching and finding constantly changing digital music users’ needs. Based on the observation that business models must be discovered in the course of making technologies work in the market, a new framework of ‘social shaping of business models’ is proposed in order to conceptualise business models as an emergent process in which firms refine their strategies in the light of emerging circumstances. (3) Drawing upon the concepts of musical networks (Leyshon 2001) and mediation (Hennion 1989), the thesis investigates the interaction of the diverse actors across the circuit of the recording business – production, distribution, valorisation, and consumption. The comprehensive analysis of the intricate interplay between innovation actors and their interactions in the economic, cultural, legal and institutional context highlights the need to develop a more sophisticated and nuanced understanding of the recording industry.

This research is a practice-based inquiry into the contribution of art to processes in which communities explore, design and proceed on sustainable ways forward. In rejecting an overly technocratic approach, this thesis follows a learning-based conception of sustainable development. Rather than transmitting predetermined solutions, social learning is about establishing a prolific framework of conditions in which people can explore for themselves what is ‘right’, sustainable and desired. Such learning shows important overlaps with art, in that it does not set out to transmit a predetermined message; instead the meaning of something is collectively made throughout the process. Where the shift from instrumental, technocratic approaches to participatory, intersubjective and open-ended approaches to sustainable development is relatively new in the social sciences, artists arguably have a longer legacy working in non-instrumental and ‘goal-searching’ ways. Subsequently, this thesis proposes a range of artful approaches that would allow educators to create spaces in which meaning is mutually created. These are the result of three research activities: the researcher interviewed artists, she participated in practices of artists, and reflected upon her own making process in which she conceived social learning as a contextual arts practice. Where this thesis takes social learning into new areas of knowledge is in the way that it conceives the meaning of sustainable development as continuously coming out of the present. Despite a professed action-oriented and experiential rendition of sustainable development, academics in the field of learning for sustainability present the concept as theoretical and abstract: it exists separated from the lived world of practice that it draws meaning from. This thesis argues that the key potential of art lies in counteracting such excessive objectification of socio-environmental issues. Through locative meaning-making, for example, meanings are derived from the here and now rather than from abstracted terms. Consequently, social learning should not strive for sustainable development as an objective, general goal in itself. Instead the learning should be conceived as an emergent process that is driven by an active vehicle, score or invitation that generates an interaction-rich environment in which meaning-making can happen. Sustainable development then threads through the fabric of whatever is happening, rather than being a focus on its own.

“An Omnivorous Ear - The Creative Practice of Field Recording” offers new insights into the history of recording outside of the studio in North America, challenging the various working definitions of field recording in music studies, anthropology, and communications. I examine recording methodologies through the late 19th and 20th centuries as a documentary technique, a tool for composition, and an art object in the United States of America and Canada from the late 19th century to the present day. Within this geographical region, I focus on the invention of acoustic recording, the proliferation of the technology amongst the public, folkloric recording supported by governmental and academic institutions, as well a experimental artistic practices. Throughout the dissertation, I argue that ‘the field’ is a social construction mediated by the recordist and recorder. Chapter 2 focuses on how cultures translate collective and phenomenological experiences into histories through sound media. These include orality, writing, the inscription of sound waves onto media, acoustic recording, and radio as forms of sound media that each embodies distinct forms of social and political knowledge. Chapter 3 details the development of recording machines and their effect on listening practices. Chapter 4 locates practitioners of phonography within the development of portable recording equipment on the one hand and the ‘hi-fi’ cultural movement in North America on the other. Practitioners included folklorists Alan Lomax from the Library of Congress, Moses Asch of Folkways Records, and Harry Smith, creator of the Anthology of American Folk Music; Stefan Kudelski, creator of the NAGRA recorder; and media maker Tony Schwartz, among the first to create the sound documentary by editing field recordings. Chapter 5 explores the relationship between sound, music and the environment within the paradigm of the soundscape as theorized by the World Soundscape Project (WSP). I critique the research and compositional practices developed by WSP members, and the influence it has on ecomusicology and sound art. Chapter 6 outlines sonic ethnography, a methodology that borrows from the best practices of many of the individuals mentioned throughout the dissertation, and employs new compositional techniques to condense and manipulate social, political and historical narratives through sonic works. The dissertation concludes by arguing that field recording, can be used to critique aesthetic and cultural dilemmas of representation.