Fear of failure has negative psychological and physiological effects on children in achievement settings. Perceiving the consequences of failure to be aversive provides the basis for fear of failure, and the anticipation of threatening outcome elicits fear. This thesis focuses on investigating fear of failure in the sport domain, specifically among young elite athletes. The first study (chapter 4) examined young athletes' (n=9; ages 14-17 years) perceptions of the consequences of failure, the effects of fear of failure on them, and their coping responses to the effects of fear of failure. Data analysis revealed that the most commonly perceived aversive consequences of failure were diminished perception of self, no sense of achievement, and the emotional cost of failure. Fear of failure affected the athletes' well-being, interpersonal relationships, schoolwork, and sporting performance. They employed a combination of problem-focused, emotion-focused, and avoidance focused coping strategies, the latter being the most frequently reported strategy. Study 2 (chapter 5) aimed to examine the developmental origins of fear of failure among young elite athletes. Three intact families of young elite athletes (ages 13-14 years) volunteered to participate in this study. Data analysis revealed three mechanisms of fear of failure transmission: parental punitive behaviour, parental controlling behaviour, and parental expectations. The athletes and their parents reported common fears of failure, such as fears of negative judgment, of not attaining aspirations, of losing ranking, and of nonselection to future competitions. The study provided evidence to support an intergenerational transmission of fear of failure from parents to young elite athletes through recurrent patterns of parent-child interaction. The third and final study (chapter 6) designed an intervention programme whose primary aim was to reduce young elite athletes' (n=6, ages 13-15 years) fear of failure levels through parental training, and its secondary aim was to reduce their parents' fears of their child's failure. The intervention comprised two separate educational programmes. The first programme offered the parents (6 couples) a one-off educational seminar (Study 3a) and the second programme offered a young elite athlete and her parents ten weekly one-to one intervention sessions (Study 3b). Both programmes aimed to teach parents about fear of failure and about their role in the development of their child's FF, specifically addressing issues of parent-child communication and interaction. Cognitive-behavioural therapy provided the framework for the intervention. Findings from both programmes showed that the parents reduced their punitive behaviours and adopted more favourable ways of reacting to their child's failures. Both programmes showed that the athletes' and parents' fear of failure levels had decreased post-intervention. Avoidance motivation goals also decreased for most of the athletes. This research extends our knowledge on the FF phenomenon in the youth sport context, where research on FF has been greatly neglected. It provides the first scientific documentation of young elite athletes' perceptions of the consequences of failure, the effects of fear of failure on them, and their coping responses to these effects. It also provides the first evidence to support intergenerational transmission of fear of failure from parents to young elite athletes; thus, implicating parents in the developmental origins of fear of failure in young elite athletes. The intervention programme offers the first documented scientific programme designed to reduce fear of failure levels of young elite athletes and their parents, thus, enhancing our knowledge about the treatment ofFF. The findings of this research can be used to inform assessment, diagnosis, and treatment off ear of failure in sport. A better understanding of the fear of failure phenomenon in sport will enable sport psychologists to enhance young athletes' performances, well-being, and social development.

This thesis is written as a collection of research papers detailing four studies through which imagery perspectives, modality, ability and their neural substrates were investigated. Study 1 explored the effects of internal visual imagery and external visual imagery on the performance of a slalom-based motor task, with the results demonstrating beneficial performnance effects for internal visual imagery over external visual imagery. Study 2 followed the design of study 1, and further examined the effects of imagery modality (visual and kinaesthetic) on the performance of the slalom-based task. The results revealed that kinaesthetic imagery provided beneficial effects over internal visual imagery. Study 3 applied the Vividness of Movement Imagery Questionnaire-2 (VMIQ-2) and fMRI to study the brain activation underpinning internal visual imagery, external visual imagery and kinaesthetic imagery. Results showed internal visual imagery, external visual imagery and kinaesthetic imagery elicited both common areas of activation (in the right supplementary motor area, BA6) and dissociated areas of activation. Specifically, internal visual imagery compared to both external visual imagery and kinaesthetic imagery activated occipital and parietal and frontal brain areas (i.e., the dorsal stream) while external visual imagery activated the occipital ventral stream areas and kinaesthetic imagery activated caudate and cerebellum areas. Study 4 investigated the neural substrates of high and low imagers for different visual imagery perspectives and modality using fMRI. More brain activations were detected in the low imagers than the high imagers during all imagery conditions. Specifically, the medial temporal lobe and the superior temporal gyrus showed more activation in the low imagers. From these results it can be suggested that individuals with lower imagery ability are less efficient in recruiting relevant brain areas to generate vivid images than those with higher imagery ability.

This study aimed to explore parents perceptions regarding their involvement in their children s sport. Specifically, the study examined parents understanding of their role as sporting parents and how this role is managed alongside other commitments. Eleven (11) married couples (11 mothers and 11 fathers) from Cyprus and seventeen (17) married couples (17 fathers and 17 mothers) from the UK participated in semi-structured interviews. Narrative analysis revealed that being a sporting parent is challenging, demanding and ever-changing process, which appears to transcend cultural specificity. Parents built up a varied portfolio of roles over two distinct yet interdependent complex social dimensions: (a) the family and (b) the sport. Furthermore, the roles parents fulfilled also varied in terms of their direction, either being personally directed to one person (e.g., athlete) or being directed towards a relationship, with parents acting as facilitators (e.g., towards the coach-athlete relationship or sibling relationships). Overall results illustrated that mothers and fathers take their children s sport seriously by trying to be positive role models and by showing an active interest in the child s development both in and out of sport, whilst dealing with their other children, their marital relationship, and their professional career. Results are discussed in relation to previous research and recommendations are offered for applied practice.

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This thesis aimed to explore two key objectives with regard to athlete burnout. The first objective was to examine the extant literature to determine, what is known about burnout in athlete populations, and what do we still need to know? A second objective was to extend understanding of burnout as a syndrome, through the exploration of burnout as a process.

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