Commercially available golf club shafts have been characterised for a range of quantifiable properties, including static and torsional stiffness, frequency along the shaft length and around the circumference, shaft diameter and wall thickness taper, 3- point mini-beam bend testing, and microstructure. The frequency of the shafts tested ranged from 230 to 268 cpm (cycles per minute) and was shown to vary by up to 5 % around the individual shaft circumferences, with the stiffness varying along the shaft length depending on the dimensional profile. The wall thickness was also shown to vary around the shaft circumference by up to 27 % and correlation was found between increases in the shaft stiffness and increases in wall thickness for individual shafts. The variations in wall thickness, however, were unable to totally describe the stiffness variations around the circumference of the shafts. Variations in microstructure, in particular fibre volume fraction, which could cause up to a 9 cpm change in frequency were shown to exist throughout the wall thickness around the circumference of the shaft and were found to be influential on the shaft behaviour. The causes of stiffness variation have been prioritised. The dynamic stiffness of the shafts was measured and found to be approximately the same as the static stiffness for all of the sheet laminated shafts and approximately 12 % higher for a filament wound shaft due to the extra resin present. There was no statistical difference in measured stiffness between the orientations of high and low static stiffness when the shafts were tested dynamically.

Golf equipment has developed considerably over the past half-century, and iron clubs are no exception to this evolution. Modern 'cavity back' irons differ substantially from more traditional 'blade' designs both in terms of appearance, and the way in which they are perceived by the golfing community. There is a substantial research base surrounding the performance of drivers, putter and balls, as well as the biomechanics of driving the golf ball, however I ittle research in the public domain has been dedicated to similar analyses involving iron clubs. The primary aim of the thesis was therefore to present and compare quantitative performance data for blade and cavity back irons, the results of which would be contextualised using short-term performance variation of highly-skilled amateur golfers. Suitable blade and cavity back designs were sourced; 5-irons of each design were chosen for analysis and subsequently matched in terms of their static properties (e.g. mass, loft, lie). Experimental studies involving a golf robot and a diverse sample of golfers hitting from natural turf were designed to compare the performance of the two designs. Passive marker motion tracking techniques were used to quantify c1ubhead presentation at impact, whilst a combination of stereoscopic and radar-based launch monitors were used to measure shot outcome. The cavity back was found to launch higher and with more total spin than the blade, whilst the loss of ball speed resulting from eccentric impact locations with the cavity back was found to be less than that for comparable impacts with the blade. Robot testing of the cavity back produced results in support of the presence of the 'gear effect' (Cochran & Stobbs, 1968; Cross & Nathan, 2007) - a phenomenon not typically associated with irons. An additional sample of highly-skilled amateur golfers performed three repeat test sessions over the course of no more than two weeks. Variation in participants' performance was used to contextualise the measured differences between clubs. Participants' central tendency was generally found to vary between sessions by a greater magnitude than the differences observed between the blade and cavity back, but the relative performance difference between the two clubs was maintained. A spectral measure of variability was also developed and applied to kinematic data from the study, in an attempt to address some of the shortcomings of more traditional event-based analysis. In summary, whilst systematic differences were found between the performance of blade and cavity back irons, the performance of even highly-skilled golfers appears to be sufficiently variable and idiosyncratic that any 'advantage' derived from using the cavity back is not universal.

Golfers, coaches and researchers alike, have all keyed in on golf putting as an important aspect of overall golf performance. Of the three principle putting tasks (green reading, alignment and the putting action phase), the putting action phase has attracted the most attention from coaches, players and researchers alike. This phase includes the alignment of the club with the ball, the swing, and ball contact. A significant amount of research in this area has focused on measuring golfer’s vision strategies with eye tracking equipment. Unfortunately this research suffers from a number of shortcomings, which limit its usefulness. The purpose of this thesis was to address some of these shortcomings. The primary objective of this thesis was to re-evaluate golfer’s putting vision strategies using binocular eye tracking equipment and to define a new, optimal putting vision strategy which was associated with both higher skill and success. In order to facilitate this research, bespoke computer software was developed and validated, and new gaze behaviour criteria were defined. Additionally, the effects of training (habitual) and competition conditions on the putting vision strategy were examined, as was the effect of ocular dominance. Finally, methods for improving golfer’s binocular vision strategies are discussed, and a clinical plan for the optometric management of the golfer’s vision is presented. The clinical management plan includes the correction of fundamental aspects of golfers’ vision, including monocular refractive errors and binocular vision defects, as well as enhancement of their putting vision strategy, with the overall aim of improving performance on the golf course. This research has been undertaken in order to gain a better understanding of the human visual system and how it relates to the sport performance of golfers specifically. Ultimately, the analysis techniques and methods developed are applicable to the assessment of visual performance in all sports.

Golf course managers need to manage their facilities efficiently for both economic and qualitative reasons. Golf greens are the most significant area on the golf course for play, intensity of maintenance practice, and player judgement of quality. The gap in knowledge lies between measurement of golf green performance and operations efficiency. Performance measurement is the process of controlling management operations to achieve optimum resource input efficacy but in considering existing performance management systems it was found that none provided a definitive tool that could be used to monitor operations for golf green management. This research aims to determine whether a performance management system can be developed for golf green management. Four golf courses were selected to collect management data for operations practices and qualitative tests of golf green performance. Interviews provided operations data for the core practices, identified from literature, including material inputs. The comparison of maintenance inputs and their costs against playing quality allow objective comparison and determination of management efficacy. A survey of golf course managers and review of industry operations practice also informed the key parameters in the development of a performance management framework. Research data for maintenance intensity, cost, and quality have been plotted onto analysis framework graphs which indicate the quality golf course managers are achieving within golf green culture with known levels of resource input. This research proposes a performance management framework for golf course managers to enable them to better manage their golf greens. The adopted research methodology and methods have produced a performance based management framework for golf green management. Mapping key parameters of quality, costs, and inputs in a benchmarking radar chart reflects the efficacy of golf green management in a way that allows stakeholders to identify and adjust operation variables. In a survey of Golf Course Managers in the UK, 73% of respondents stated that they would find a performance management framework beneficial for their work.

The present investigation examined the effects of model familiarity on golf drive performance and mastery expectations. Bandura (1997) suggested that self modelling enhanced performance through the mediational effect of self efficacy. This theoretical prediction has been supported in contemporary research (Clarke & Ste-Marie, 2007; Ram & McCullagh, 2003) Therefore, in the present investigation, a best attempt self model group observing self-adaptive behaviour (BASM) was compared to an expert model group (EM) and a no model group. Based on Bandura's prediction, the BASM group would demonstrate elevated mastery expectations compared to the other groups, and subsequently demonstrate superior performance, as measured by horizontal distance and ratings of form (examined using the golf drive observation list (GDOL)). Using intermediate standard golfers, and following five treatment sessions and a retention test ten days following the end of the treatment the data revealed a significant group main effect for mastery expectations. Pairwise comparisons revealed differences between the BASM and control group throughout the whole treatment (p<0.05) and the BASM and the EM group in the [mal treatment session (p<0.05) whereby the BASM group had higher measures of mastery expectations. However, there were no significant differences observed for horizontal distance. There were significant differences for ratings of form whereby the BASM and EM groups reported higher form scores than the controL This provides limited support for Bandura's prediction as the enhanced mastery expectations did not lead to a similar concomitant change in golf drive performance. This is explained using Scully and Newell's (1985) visual perceptual perspective; in particular its theoretical prediction that only learners in the co-ordination phase of learning would benefit from observational learning.

Sport has been used as a ‘vehicle’ for youth development where coaches, researchers and practitioners have focused on a strengths-based approach to support adolescents’ transition into adulthood. Such a positive youth development (PYD) approach, rather than a deficit-reduction paradigm, has informed the creation of sport-based life skills interventions. Given the challenges and potential adversities that adolescents face during such a transition, interventions targeting life skills associated with resilience could provide a catalyst in supporting adolescents to manage challenging situations they currently face and those that they will face in the future as adults. However, sport-based life skills interventions utilising resilience as a theoretical basis are scarce. Therefore, the purpose of this thesis was to design, pilot and implement a resilience-based life skills intervention and evaluate its effectiveness within the sport of golf. A secondary aim was to understand the role of the intervention facilitator, which in this case was a trainee sport psychology consultant (author). The context of this programme of research involved a collaborative partnership between a university and a small enterprise (golf club) based in a convergence zone (outlined by Welsh Government) as part of a Knowledge Economy Skills Scholarship (KESS) project. The purpose of pairing a research institution (university) and an external organisation (golf club) was to provide the opportunity for research to have a direct and immediate impact on society. Study 1 targeted the pilot process involved in designing a life skills intervention via an action research methodology. Three pilot interventions were delivered with separate participants. The key findings from Study 1 related to the importance placed upon building rapport with participants to aid potential life skill transfer, as well as the format and structure of sessions to support participant understanding of life skills. Following the pilot process, a 16-hour intervention was devised and subsequently implemented across four separate intervention groups as part of Study 2. A process and outcome evaluation was carried out through a mixed methods approach to determine the intervention’s efficacy and effectiveness. Continuing the action research methodology, Study 2 demonstrated the importance in the structure and contextual factors when implementing a life skills intervention. In addition, it aligned with previous research highlighting the importance towards building rapport with participants and targeting experiential learning as a key teaching strategy. Finally, the process of designing and delivering a life skills intervention to numerous groups of adolescents has highlighted the crucial importance of adapting content and structure towards the needs and abilities of the individuals. To capture the experiences of the author in delivering the intervention via an action research methodology, the thesis concludes with a reflective epilogue that documents his journey in developing as a practitioner and researcher. This programme of research has highlighted the contextual and interpersonal implications involved in designing and implementing a resilience-based life skills intervention. In addition to its novel approach of integrating resilience theory and life skills research, the practical applications could potentially support sport psychology practitioners, coaches and youth programme leaders in designing sport-based life skills interventions.

This thesis examines factors that influence the propensity to, and the utility of, conscious processing during a complex motor skill. Prevalent theories of skill acquisition and automaticity view expert performance as best executed in the absence of conscious control of the movement. There is substantial evidence to support this claim for simple tasks but a lack of research for complex skills is apparent. In this thesis the role of conscious processing (reinvestment) is examined in relation to the full golf swing in baseline and anxiety conditions. The early experiments in the thesis examined the effects of limiting conscious processing through a temporal restriction. This paved the way for the later experiments that looked deeper into individualistic elements of personality and cognitive 'make up,' that may affect the control structures of the golf swing. The results indicate that conscious processing during task performance affects individuals differently. A high 'verbaliser' group deteriorated while 'visualisers' showed improvement during restricted conscious input trials. Furthermore, both short­-term memory and working memory showed positive correlations with task performance. Overall, this study implies a positive role for conscious control in the golf swing and questions the efficacy of reinvestment theory in relation to complex skills.

The detrimental nature of movement variability has recently been reconsidered with suggestions that it has a functional role to play in performance. Movements in golf can be attributed to the organismic, task and environmental constraints from which they emerge with these swing movements affecting shot outcomes. A three-dimensional analysis of address position variability revealed that higher skilled golfers present reduced alignment variability in angular relationships between the shoulders and stance compared to less skilled counterparts. Whilst there were no group differences in impact variability, both points in the swing displayed reducing variability from proximal to distal aspects of the kinetic chain. With the popularity of strength and conditioning growing within the golfing world it has become important for coaches to be able to assess golfers’ physical constraints. Two-dimensional analysis, representative of that used in coaching environments, assessed the relationship between the overhead squat and deterioration of posture in the golf swing. Results showed small but significant relationships between this test and golf swing postural kinematics. An 8-week intervention to address overhead squat physical constraints resulted in no change in 3D swing kinematics. Strength and conditioning as a stand-alone intervention provides no benefits to postural kinematics suggesting the need for coaching.

The quiet eye (QE) - the final fixation or tracking gaze on a specific location that has an onset prior to the start of a final, critical movement (Vickers, 2007) - has emerged as a key predictor of proficient performance in targeting and interceptive tasks over the last 20 years. Since Vickers’ seminal study in golf putting, the QE has been examined in over 28 different motor tasks, with a longer QE duration often referred to as a characteristic of superior performance and a measure of optimal visuo-motor control. However, the underpinnings of QE are not fully understood, with many researchers advocating the need to better identify and understand the mechanisms that underlie the QE (Williams, 2016; Gonzalez et al., 2015). Consequently, the overriding goal of this thesis was to examine the function of the QE duration, what it represents and how it exerts an influence, by exploring the attentional underpinnings of the QE and the prominent cognitive mechanism of response programming. In study 1 (chapter 4), the manipulation of different parameters of golf putting and the examination of different response programming functions (pre-programming vs online control) during the QE enabled me to build on previous explorations of the response programming function by investigating QE’s response to specific iterations of increased task demands. Experienced golfers revealed that longer QE durations were found for more complex iterations of the task and more sensitive analyses of the QE proportions suggest that the early QE (prior to movement initiation) is closely related to force production and impact quality. While the increases in QE were not functional in terms of supporting improved performance, the longer QE durations may have had a positive, insulating effect. In study 2 (chapter 5), a re-examination of Vickers’ seminal work in golf putting was performed, taking into account an error recovery perspective. This 3 explored the influence of trial-to-trial dependence on the functionality of the QE duration and the possible compensatory mechanism that assists in the re-parameterisation of putting mechanics following an unsuccessful trial. The results reveal that experienced golfers had consistently longer QE durations than novices but there was no difference in QE between randomly chosen hits and misses. However, QE durations were significantly longer on hits following a miss, reflecting a potential error recovery mechanism. Importantly, QE durations were significantly lower on misses following a miss, suggesting that motivation moderates the adoption of a compensatory longer QE strategy. These findings indicate that the QE is influenced by the allocation of attentional effort. To explore this notion further, in study 3 (chapter 6), two experiments were undertaken. Experiment 1 examined the QE’s response to attentional effort that is activated via goal motivation and experiment 2 examined the effect of disrupting the allocation of attentional effort on the QE using a dual-task paradigm. The early proportion of the QE was sensitive to motivation, indicating that the QE is not purely determined by the demands of the task and golfers have the ability to apply attentional effort, and therefore QE, strategically (exp. 1). The results also support the assumption that QE reflects overt attentional control but question the sensitivity of QE to detect movements in the locus of attentional effort that does not activate shifts in gaze (covert attention) (exp. 2). The results in this thesis conclude that, while significant contributions to understanding what the QE represents and how it may exert its influence are made, there still remains unanswered questions and tensions that require exploration.

Context: This thesis focused on two main areas of golf performance. Firstly, centre of pressure excursions influence on full golf swing performance, as despite golf coaching literature placing importance on weight transfer, literature into this mechanism is limited. Secondly, the area of the golf putt was examined; few studies have investigated the biomechanics into the putting stroke despite it being identified as the most important performance factor within golf. Areas of investigation were, centre of pressure excursions during the putting stroke, the impact point on golf ball and movement variability on performance outcomes being the ball roll kinematics. Aims: To examine biomechanical factors that influence golf performance. Centre of pressure excursion during the full golf swing and putting stroke were examined. Additionally, body segment kinematics and variability of rotations were correlated with putting performance outcomes. The impact point on the golf ball was considered as a mechanism that can cause variability of the kinematic ball roll. Subjects: All subjects used in this thesis were actively playing golf. Subjects were categorised using the golf handicap system. For studies assessing reliability, validity or isolating putter stroke kinematics a mechanical putting robot was used. Methods: Correlational research whereby no variables were manipulated was predominantly adopted throughout this thesis to establish relationships between biomechanical parameters and golf performance. Biomechanical parameters were assessed using the appropriate data collection and analysis techniques; this included the variability associated with segment rotations. Results: Significant differences were observed for the centre of pressure excursions along the mediolateral axis between three different golf clubs (full swing). For the putting stroke low handicap golfers demonstrated lower centre of pressure excursions along the anteroposterior axis in comparison to high handicap golfers, additionally, a large amount of inter-subject variability was observed for centre of pressure excursions. In regards to the impact point on the golf ball, significant associations were identified between impact variables and the performance measures horizontal launch angle and whether the ball was pushed or pulled, these results were not replicated with human participants. It was identified that the relationship between the centre of mass displacement and centre of pressure excursions is a complex one and that movement variability had a detrimental effect on the horizontal launch angle and therefore performance. Conclusions: The results from the full swing analysis of this thesis suggest that stance width may influence the amount of centre of pressure excursions that occur. For the golf putting stroke, golfers and coaches should reduce the amount of variability associated with the technique to improve performance. Regarding future scientific research, a combination of individual analysis accompanying group-based analysis should be utilised due to the large inter-subject differences observed.