Narratology does not usually distinguish between original and translated fiction and narratologicai models do not pay any attention to the translator as a discursive subject. Since the 1990's, the visibility of translators in translated narrative texts has been increasingly discussed and researchers like Schiavi (1996) and Hermans (1996) introduced the concept of the translator's voice, which attempts to recognise the 'other' voice in translation, i.e. the presence of the translator. Corpus-based studies have also focused on recurrent features of translated language (see, for example. Baker 1993, Kenny 2001; Laviosa 1997; Olohan and Baker 2000), and corpus techniques and tools are being employed to identify the translators' 'style' in their translations (Baker 2000). The present thesis seeks to explore the nature of the translator's discursive presence by investigating certain narratologicai aspects of the relation between originals and translations. Until recently comparative analysis between originals and their translations have mainly relied on manual examinations; the present study will demonstrate that corpus-based translation studies and its tools can gready facilitate and sharpen the process of comparison. My work uses a parallel corpus composed of two English novels and their French translations; Virginia Woolf's To The Lighthouse (1927) and its three translations (Promenade au Phare, 1929, translated by Michel Lanoire; Voyage au Phare, 1993, by Magali Merle; Vers le Phare, 1996, by Francoise Pellan), and The Waves (1931), and its two translations (Les leagues, 1937, translated by Marguerite Yourcenar and Les agues, 1993, translated by Cecile Wajsbrot). The relevant texts have been scanned and put in machine-readable form and I study them using corpus-analysis tools and techniques (WordSmith Tools, Multiconcord). My investigation is particularly concerned with the potential problems involved in the translation of linguisdc features that constitute the notion of point of view, i.e. deixis, modality, transitivity and free indirect discourse, and seeks to determine whether and how the translator's choices affect the transfer of narratologicai structures.

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The object of this study of the writings of novelist and playwright, Clemence Dane (1888-1965), is to contribute to the growing body of research into the relationship of women’s 1920s and 1930s middlebrow fiction to the ideology and cultural hegemony of the inter-war period. The main purpose is to investigate Dane’s treatment of gender politics, using a broad feminist approach which defines feminist values as necessarily encompassing egalitarian principles. The research also considers Dane’s work in its cultural and historical context. Her work is interpreted with reference to the recently-defined paradigms of conservative modernism, New Woman writing and domestic modernism. The investigation focusses on close critical readings of her novels, short stories and journalistic writings and examines points of connection between her literary form, genres, methods, strategies and perspectives and those of her more well-known female middlebrow writer-contemporaries. In the course of the enquiry, it has been found that Dane’s work is compromised by the normative expectations of publishers and the middlebrow market, and her gender philosophies are consistent with the somewhat fragmented and multifarious feminism which emerged following the First World War. Her writing maps the cultural transition from traditional conceptions of gender values to more modern feminist positions. The study’s interpretations of her texts point to sympathetic representations of marginalised groups and an evolving feminist perspective. This is evidenced in increasingly confident representations of modern womanhood and configurations of models of female essentialist supremacy defined by resilience, imagination and visionary experience. A discourse of alternative domesticity has been uncovered; Dane’s narratives come to promote fulfilment by means of creative and professional endeavour, in place of the traditional rewards of marriage and motherhood. The research concludes that notwithstanding certain ideological anomalies or capitulations to conservative positions, Dane’s fiction is informed by a modern feminist consciousness.

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his thesis aims to examine self-division as an Orwellian trait which was the product of living through turbulent political times and which became for George Orwell a method to critique the ideologies of his contemporary political milieu. Orwell witnessed the defining struggles of the twentieth century: the hypocrisy of colonial exploitation, the ideological battle between Fascism and Communism during the Spanish Civil War and its effects on the trends of totalitarian power politics in the Thirties and Forties, and all these influenced his vision of a future dystopia. Orwell reflects on these struggles and draws his major subject matter from them: the abuse of power through 'force and fraud'. He uses the phrase 'force and fraud/cunning' to both represent and condemn totalitarian strategies for gaining and retaining power. The thesis explores Orwell's journey to dystopia, using major texts as milestones. The analyses in this thesis have two objectives. The more specific is to highlight Orwell's 'self-division' or 'divided self', examining how these terms apply to the contradictions and inconsistencies that exist in his oeuvre as a whole, and how they arise from integrity rather than cynicism and hypocrisy. The other objective is a broader analysis of Orwell's political thought in the context of the politics of the period. Throughout the thesis, this broader investigation illustrates how authoritarian systems and totalitarian regimes exploit power and pretence, alloyed by contradictions, in order to divide the self and force individuals, and consequently society, into submission. Orwell's self-division and the character of totalitarian thought are further illuminated by comparing his views on the use of 'force and fraud' with those advanced by Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) in The Prince (1532), where he uses the phrase in promoting viii the use of totalitarian tactics in attaining and holding power. Orwell's critique of James Burnham (1905-1987), in his 'Review of The Machiavelians by James Burnham' (1944) and his essay 'Second Thoughts on James Burnham' (1946), is used to show Orwell's divided opinions. Although he criticises Burnham's Machiavellian beliefs about the use of force and fraud to dominate and deceive people, stating that these tactics are coming to an end, evidence of the efficacy and success of such strategies permeates the major works discussed in this thesis. This thesis comprises six chapters and a conclusion. Chapter One provides backgrounds and contexts for Orwell's self-division and political opinions. It reviews Orwell's distinctive style, where he often mixes non-fiction and fiction in order to establish equilibrium between the socio-political and imaginative aspects of his writing. The chapter then presents an assessment which explores the influence of Orwell's reputation on, and its relevance to, the Cold War and the occupation of Iraq, showing how viewing events through an Orwellian lens reveals that the strategies of force and fraud flourished and still flourish in twenty-first century world politics. The last section of the chapter provides a basis for the analyses that follow by reviewing the extreme political turmoil of the Thirties, its impact on the Auden generation and on Orwell's intellectual and political development. Chapter Two defines Orwell's self-division and interprets his paradox. It discusses how using paradox as a rhetorical device and establishing a pseudonym are manifestations of his self-division, and explores Orwell's adoption of the pseudonym as a persona in his writing and as an author outside it, with emphasis on his pseudonym's reputation and its significance in purging class prejudice. This chapter also assesses Orwell's views of Machiavelli by focusing on his criticism of Burnham's eulogising of Machiavelli's politics, and examines what these views, conveyed through questioning Burnham's political thought, reveal about Orwell's self-division. Although several critics have tried to identify Orwell's self-division and others have seen paradox as fundamental to Orwell's work, they have all overlooked ix the connection between the two, and instead offered differing, yet limited, views of the origins of his self-division and paradox. The chapter presents a new perspective that interprets the close relationship between self-division, paradox and the use of a pseudonym, demonstrating how they help in understanding Orwell's character, works and the nature of totalitarian politics. The remaining chapters of the thesis analyse self-division in both its specific and broader contexts in some defining works in the Orwell canon, using his summary of Burnham's Machiavellian worldview as a basis for comparisons between the Orwell texts and Machiavelli's political principles in The Prince. Chapter Three investigates Orwell's formative years at St Cyprian's preparatory school as documented in his controversial and anti-authoritarian memoir 'Such, Such were the Joys' (c. 1948). Chapter Four discusses Burmese Days (1934) as Orwell's personal, historical account of the abuse of power and exploitation of people by the colonial regime in Burma. Chapter Five focuses on Homage to Catalonia (1938) to reveal the dangers of betrayal and the power struggle in revolutionary Spain. Chapter Six examines Nineteen Eighty- Four (1949) as an example of using power politics and self-division as prerequisites of totalitarianism. Here, by creating a semi-fictional place and time, Orwell represents the ultimate dystopian horror of such politics taken to extremes and of humanity in extremis. The conclusion then summarises the findings and interprets Orwell from a present-day perspective. x.

This thesis aims to establish the importance of dream in the fictions of H. D., Virginia Woolf and James Joyce. By examining the emergent dream psychology at the turn of the 20th century, I chart its impact on their writing, and in particular I explore the way in which these writers are deeply resistant to the theories of Freud. I suggest that they harbour what Harold Bloom has called an 'anxiety of influence' towards contemporary psychoanalysts. I investigate their sense of rivalry, which is due partly to their parallel venture of finding an adequate language and framework for representing the life of the dream. I argue that these three writers' 'resistance' to psychoanalysis precipitates a radical negotiation and transformation of the dream psychology of their milieu, which they render in their fiction. H. D., Woolf and Joyce search for a vision in which scienceand spirituality can be united. Freud was criticised by these writers for his scientific and positivistic outlook, which Jung had already articulated as 'psychology without the soul.' These writers are on a quest to put the soul back into what they see as a materialist psychology, and often look towards mystical phenomena to transcend the split that they discern. H. D. epitomises this search in her admonition that she wishes to found a dream psychoanalysisthat could embrace occult phenomena, which lay 'outside the province of established psychoanalysis.'She was, of course referring to Freudian psychoanalysis, but Jungian psychologywas amenable to this spirituality. This thesis also explores how these three writers, unknown to themselves, beckon towards a Jungian dream psychology, especially in their rendering of a collective unconsciousand use of mythical archetypes. I have named my thesis 'Royal Roads', after Freud's famous assertion that 'Dreams are the royal road to a knowledge of the unconscious activities of the mind.' Yet this thesis maintains that H. D., Woolf and Joyce embody the modernist impulse to 'make it new', and thus embark on a journey of revisionism in which they create their own 'royal roads' to the dream.

In my thesis, I use contemporary critical techniques to demonstrate the intimate relationship between ambiguity and meaning in the novels of Joseph Conrad. In my INTRODUCTION, I identify the post-structural nature of my approach and define the terms employed. Each of the following chapters analyses a single novel by establishing the dominant strategies whereby the flow of information is regulated, then demonstrating how these strategies render ambiguous the information imparted. The novels selected reflect the successive stages of Conrad's writing life. In CHAPTER I, I analyse passages from Almayer's Folly, particularly its opening pages, to show how from the outset of his writing life Conrad subverts such reader expectations and traditional 'plot pleasures' as suspense, and instead inscribes tension in the play of ambiguity in narrative strategies ranging from shared perspective narration to simple description. CHAPTER11 considers Lord Jim, showing how the novel's equivocal ending reflects the ambiguously proleptic tendency of the narrative, which offers various chains of inference to the reader that, when pursued, are shown to contradict their own ,logic. CHAPTERIII analyses Under Western Eyes with particular reference to the incongruously playful tone of the Western narrator. It explores how such ludic features, although designed to convey the foreignness of the Russian subject, reveal a narrating voice profoundly at odds with the personal tragedy being recounted. CHAPTER IV discusses the nature of focalisation in Victory. By identifying the multiple perspectives that compose the narrative, and the interplay between them, the discussion shows that these provide range of often contradictory readings of Lena's 'victory'. CHAPTER V considers The Rover. Noticing how Conrad's last completed novel presents a curiously 'un-Conradian' hero, my analysis demonstrates how this entails a shift in the focus of ambiguity from that identified in the preceding chapters, from ambiguity of character to ambiguity of motive for action - indicating Conrad's enduring fascination with the relationship between ambiguity and meaning. In a brief CONCLUSION, I consider the development of ambiguity represented by the novels selected

This is a study of W. Somerset Maugham's writings about the East as colonialist discourse. It examines Maugham's representation of 'white' men in the colonies, of the 'natives', and of the environment and landscape in which his stories are set. Drawing upon the work of the 'subaltern' group of Indian historians, and using historiography as a point of departure, the reading analyses the extent of the exclusion of 'subaltern' consciousness and history in Maugham's texts. It also locates the margins and the silences in his texts as sites for the recuperation of 'subaltern' presence and history. His representation of 'native' men, of 'native' women and of 'half-castes' is given particular attention. Racial hierarchies intersect with those of gender when 'white' women as 'sexual' beings share the condition of subalternity with 'natives'. Again, Eastern lands are also seen to be inscribed as feminine and as such made available for (Western) male occupation and domination. This reading also interrogates the dominant 'humanist' paradigm of Maugham criticism which has consistently read his work as being an 'exact' or'true' representation of the worlds he writes of, and demonstrates the extent to which his writing draws on Orientalist constructions of the East, and far from valorising the East (as traditional criticism has it), works within prevalent colonial discursive structures to reaffirm not only binary structurations of the world but also the relations of power that such structurations install and consolidate.

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