This thesis explores the aims and motives of re-enactors/ living historians from a systematic and critical perspective. These volunteer ‘weekend warriors’ appear at various sites on weekends and bank holidays, dressed in period clothing and demonstrating ways of life that no longer exist. While it seems the public generally enjoys re-enactments, there are concerns as to the overall value of these hobbyists. This work examines modern (re-)constructions of the past by volunteer re-enactors/ living historians in the US and UK primarily in three historical periods (the Roman invasion of Britain through the Norman conquest, the North American Lace Wars, and the American Civil War) through qualitative and inductive research at various re-enactment events throughout 2010 and 2011. This research has focused on various aspects of the hobby as seen through the eyes of the re-enactors themselves including: their motivations, research for events, what re-enactors gain from participating and what they see as potential benefits for themselves and others. Additionally, this thesis investigates how re-enactors construct and understand authenticity in a group, in their personal roles, and as part of a performance. Furthermore, a section of the work will explore cultural memory and identity through the study of re-enactment narratives – both ‘official’ and ‘unofficial’. Finally, heritage professionals have been interviewed to aid in the comprehension of re-enactment values along with the creation of a well-rounded framework for future use by both re-enactors and the professionals who wish to utilise this form of interpretation. Ultimately, historical re-enactment/ living history may be viewed as an interpretative tool bringing together different – sometimes informal – disciplines that study the past and can assist in interpretation and raise visitor interest. Seeking to understand the diverse values of re-enactors through the words of the re-enactors themselves offers a valuable insight into the advantages and disadvantages of the use of volunteer live interpretation in heritage management.

The 'man on the land', in his various guises - pioneer, bushman, farmer, Anzac - is an iconic figure in Australian culture. The nationalist tradition of which he is part has often been seen as vernacular and anti-British, with roots in the democracy of the bush in the nineteenth century. This thesis argues that 'the man on the land' was not autochthonous, and owes much to the classicising influences at work in New South Wales from European settlement to the First World War. It suggests that he is, in many of his manifestations, from smallholding farmer to dutiful soldier, a Virgilian figure, and that Virgil and other Greek and Roman texts were critical to shaping the narratives through which colonial Australians made claims to land. The role of the Classics in Australian culture in the nineteenth century has been largely overlooked, and needs to be reconsidered in the light of recent work on classical receptions in other postcolonial cultures. I look first at the reception of the Georgics in New South Wales; Virgil was central to the popular narrative in which the colony appeared as a nascent Rome. I then turn to counter-narratives in which the Australian continent appears as a classical underworld. I argue that Aboriginal Australians were compared to ancient peoples as part of a discourse that reinforced the idea that they were doomed to extinction. I examine debates over the value of classical education that took place in connection with the establishment of the University of Sydney; the reception of Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus in New South Wales; and the reinvigoration of the Virgilian tradition in C. E. W. Bean’s Anzacs. It is argued that recent Australian classical receptions need to be seen in the context of this long and diverse tradition of engagement with the classical past.

Indian Residential Schools (IRS) separated children from their families with the goal of acculturating them to dominant Canadian society by suppressing Indigenous languages, traditions, and spirituality. Enforced residential schooling was the determined assimilationist policy of the Canadian government for approximately 130 years, with boarding schools for Indigenous children in operation in all parts of the country from the 1880s to the mid 1990s. Despite these goals the schools were consistently underfunded and often badly managed by the government of the day; abuse and disease were rampant and death rates were high. The schools became the subject of litigation in the 1990s. The resulting 2007 IRS Settlement Agreement (IRSSA) between former students, and jointly; the Government of Canada and the churches that administered the schools was the largest legal settlement agreement in Canadian history. A truth finding and reconciliation process was one element of this multi-faceted agreement. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada (TRC) was tasked to investigate all aspects of the residential school experience and to address the past historic injustices of forced assimilation, including school deaths. School records are incomplete and recorded numbers are lower, however TRC Commissioners estimated that 6000 students, and likely more, did not survive long enough to benefit from their education. Most of these children were buried in small unofficial cemeteries on or near the school grounds. Often, parents were not notified about the death of a child and in many cases descendant families still don’t know where their relatives are buried. Over the past several decades these small, largely unmarked, burial places are increasingly disappearing from the landscape. In the context of Canada’s international obligations under the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People and recent interpretations of the Convention for the Prevention of the Crime of Genocide, I argue the case for a nationally funded, comprehensive, multi-disciplinary, archaeological program for the identification and commemoration of these spiritually important sites. With the signing of the IRSSA, many Indigenous communities have begun a healing journey to reclaim their histories, locate relatives’ unmarked burial places, and restore and commemorate lost cemeteries in ways that have meaning for them. The Indigenous communities most impacted by these deaths are leading this work. Not the least of these impacts is the lack of ‘knowing’ where the dead are buried. In the aftermath of the TRC there is much talk among Canadians about the need for reconciliation. Support for the identification and commemoration of IRS burial sites is a tangible and concrete way for the archaeological community to contribute to that endeavor.

Models of non-European boats are commonly found in museum collections in the UK and throughout the world. These objects are considerably understudied, rarely used in museum displays and at risk of disposal. In addition, there are several gaps in current understanding of traditional watercraft from the Indian Ocean, the region spanning from East Africa through to Western Australia. Using models of a range of boats from thirteen museum collections throughout the UK, this Collaborative Doctoral Award PhD research considers the value of these objects for both researchers and museums. This thesis explores the potential of models to help us to understand traditional boats and boat building practices; some of which no longer exist. It achieves this through the production of a catalogue and analysis of a wide range of models. Then, through the presentation of two case studies it starts to explore a number of ideas about the physical attributes of these objects and how representative they are of full-size vessels. In addition, the wider cultural processes and contexts of the models are explored. It considers ideas about collecting, miniaturisation and the iconic symbolism of watercraft. It is anticipated the outcome of this project will be the utilisation of models of boats from the Indian Ocean, and throughout the world, in future studies of traditional watercraft. It is also hoped that this research will help museums to re-evaluate the significance of these objects in their collections, and to use them in displays in the future to tell a range of narratives.

Circles, cup-marks and wavy lines are some of the most emblematic motifs associated with Atlantic Rock Art. The term 'Atlantic' was only introduced in the 1940s and is used throughout this thesis as it reflects the widespread distribution of the prehistoric assemblage of rock art, but also the geographic scope of this investigation. This particular iconography is known from Portugal, through to Spain, Ireland, England and up to Scotland, sharing a number of characteristics. Prior to the use of this expression, Atlantic Art was known by a variety of designations that demonstrate the fragmented character of its historiography and the regional nature of investigations. In 1997 Bradley's study introduced a turning point in investigations, with an inter-regional approach and the premise of Landscape Archaeology. This contrasted with traditional studies, more focused on the motifs and creation of typologies, failing to view Atlantic Art holistically, as a socially meaningful practice. In this thesis I set out to investigate differences and similarities of Atlantic Art. I define what its quintessential characteristics are beyond the motif typologies, and identify regional variations. Contextualizing these similarities and deviations, I assess the social and cultural implications of its creation and use. In each one of my five study areas (one in each country), I subjected empirical data to a three-scale investigation: i) Graphic - to study the motifs, ii) Sensorial - to study the rock medium and iii) Environmental - to study the landscape placement. These were developed under principles of Relational Ontology and Assemblage Theory, combining a multi-scalar methodology with a dynamic perspective of the data, explored through a detailed categorical scheme and its analysis with a Presence/Absence Matrix (PAM), spatial analysis carried out with GIS and Social Network Analysis (SNA) to relate and explore the differences and similarities, relationships and connectivity between the study areas. Concepts of developmental psychology and cultural transmission were used to posit that the tradition spread through methods of teaching. Contextualizing the tradition chronologically, it became clear that it formed another transformative processes that characterised the Neolithic.

The 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage entered into force in 2009. Little is known of how, or even if, it is being implemented. This study examines the implementation of the Convention in its States Parties and investigates the reasons behind the observed levels of implementation. Through an investigation of the presence or absence of certain indicators in the national legislation of States Parties to the Convention, it is apparent that there is a low level of compliance with the 2001 Convention. Further, the Convention has so far had a very limited legal effect. From this examination of legal effectiveness, conclusions about the interpretation of certain ambiguous provisions of the Convention are also possible. In particular, there are a small number of indications that the ambiguities in Articles 9 and 10 of the Convention are being interpreted in favour of the coastal State, suggesting an increasing territorialisation of the EEZ. Interviews of relevant actors were conducted in five case study States. This allowed an examination of the other effects of the Convention and causes of the lack of implementation to be suggested. It is concluded that it is largely factors relating to the States themselves, most notably issues with capacity, that are causing this lack of effect. Finally, suggestions are made which could improve the effectiveness of the Convention and increase the protection of underwater cultural heritage around the world.

This is a study of the literary tradition of antehomerica (i.e. the events that led to the Trojan War), and in particular the myth of the Abduction of Helen, from the archaic period up to Late Antiquity. The research aims at tracing the stages in the development of the different accounts, tracking innovations, as well as finding explanations for them. I explore chains of influences between different versions of the story's constituent episodes and, where possible, indicate why an author may have chosen to follow or reject a particular tradition. The texts covered span every period and genre from the Epic Cycle through to late antique Christian chronicles (and occasionally beyond), in both Latin and Greek. Within this, I focus especially on two epyllia which are both entitled The Abduction of Helen and were both composed around 500 AD: the Ἁρπαγὴ Ἑλένης (Harpage) was written by Colluthus of Lycopolis in Egypt in Greek, and the De Raptu Helenae (Romulea 8) by Dracontius from Carthage, Africa, in Latin. Despite their common title and date, the two poems contrast greatly with each other in their treatment of the myth, as they follow different sources; yet shared models can also be found. On the basis of these works, I am able on the one hand to demonstrate some literary continuity from Homer through to the sixth century AD in both the Western and Eastern Empires; on the other hand, in-depth readings of Colluthus and Dracontius allow me to reflect on the ways in which cultural and societal differences, including a Christian world-view, may have contributed to marked changes in the representations of the legend and to departures from the ways in which the material is handled by classical predecessors.

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