This thesis analyses the settlement dynamics of the Nuragic culture on the east coast of Sardinia during the Bronze Age and Iron Age (c. 2000-550 BC), and compares them with those in the western part of the island. The main themes examined are: the Chalcolithic to Bronze Age transition, settlement patterns, relations between settlement and ritual sites, uses of the coastline, and the implications of these for our understanding of Nuragic societies in this area. The study draws on field surveys conducted for this project in two sample areas: 1) Sarrabus (South-East Sardinia), and 2) Barisardo-Cardedu (Central-East Sardinia), and includes GIS analysis (PPA, viewsheds, least-cost path). The discussion is also placed in the wider context of prehistoric settlement in the Mediterranean. New insights on the Chalcolithic to Early Bronze Age transition in Sardinia are presented. In sample area 1, a clear relationship between pre-Nuragic and Nuragic sites is recorded, suggesting that the transition was characterized by a significant degree of continuity, rather than the collapse of Chalcolithic settlement observed in western Sardinia. This indicates a need to see this transition not as a unified process, but rather as regionally diverse one. Furthermore, in sample area 1 there is a low degree of settlement nucleation, while in sample area 2 this phenomenon is much more significant. Several scenarios are proposed to explain this, and it is argued that in some areas of the east coast the degree of societal complexity was more significant than in other areas. Conclusions are also drawn regarding the relationships between settlement and ritual sites, which turn out to be varied with no single dominant pattern. This indicates a plurality of ritual practices, and potentially different roles for individual megalithic tombs. The lack of sanctuaries in sample area 1 and their presence in sample area 2 is taken as indication of different degrees of social complexity.

This work investigated the ceramics from Ṣināʿiyyah site in Tayma Area. In particular, this study aimed to determine their types, source and chronology. Also, it aimed to find out their distribution within and outside Tayma Area, in order to increase our knowledge of the history of Tayma and its contacts. Hausleiter (2014) has classified Tayma ceramics into a number of groups, of which four of groups are attested in Ṣināʿiyyah assemblage. The features and the suggested dates for these ceramics were reviewed below. Moreover, several excavations have been conducted at Ṣināʿiyyah, and a large number of ceramics were derived from these excavations. However, the ceramics in the published reports are very few, and very important information related to these ceramics is not avialable. Therefore, new excavations in Ṣināʿiyyah were expected to provide significant results regarding the sequences and the dating of these ceramics. For these reasons, as the main part of the current study, two new excavations were conducted in Ṣināʿiyyah site. The ceramics derived from these excavations were divided into six groups based on their physical attributes. These groups were made up of three types of fabric which, according to previous petrographic studies, are related to the geology of Tayma, and may therefore have been made there. Ceramics parallel to the Ṣināʿiyyah groups were also attested in several sites in Tayma, north-west of Arabia and southern Levant. Based on integrating the stratigraphic evidence and C14 dates from our excavations at Ṣināʿiyyah, together with the evidence from the other sites where these groups were found, the six groups from Ṣināʿiyyah were dated (in general) between the early 2 nd millennium BC to the 10 th -5 th century BC. According to the suggested dating and distribution for each group of ceramics, the contact between Tayma and Qurayyah is suggested to have started from the early 2 nd millennium BC and endured more than ten centuries. Whereas, there is evidence which indicates that Tayma was in direct contacts with south Levant and Egypt during the Early Iron Age.

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Heraion on Samos lies in a strategic position between the central Aegean and western Anatolia. Recent excavations have revealed an extensive settlement of the Early Bronze Age (EBA), a time characterised by increasing social differentiation, intensified interaction, and technological innovation. An integrated study of the rich ceramic assemblage from both new and old excavations, this thesis addresses fundamental questions about the position of Heraion in a changing EBA world, examining aspects of production, specialisation, connectivity, and technological transfer. Following an agent-centred approach, diachronic change in local ceramic production is investigated, the provenance of imports suggested, with insights into the circulation of pottery within Aegean-Anatolian exchange networks. This is achieved through typological study, phasing, and contextual analysis of three ceramic major deposits, with the integrated study by macroscopic analysis, thin section petrography and microstructural analysis. This is supplemented by consideration of the local geology, ceramic resources, and ethnography. A revised EBA sequence is produced for Heraion, with the secure characterisation of local pottery production on Samos. Following a chaîne opératoire approach, the stages of manufacture have been reconstructed from a „bottom-up‟ perspective. In addition to production in the environs of Heraion, several other locations of production over the island are suggested whose products were consumed at Heraion. The changes in these patterns reveal aspects of continuity but also marked changes in ceramic production on Samos from the Late Chalcolithic to EB III. Insights into ceramic provenance highlight connections with both the western Anatolian littoral, and the central Aegean from the Chalcolithic period, though with shifts in intensity and directionality of interaction. It is argued that the significance of Heraion goes beyond the geographical, that it is more than just a convenient stopover on routes to Anatolia, but rather comprises an active social and economic force in different networks of interaction.

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No description available.

This thesis is a comparative study of the creation of monuments and memorials to commemorate the Transatlantic Slave Trade and slavery in the Circum-Atlantic region. It is based on interviews conducted with people who were directly involved in the processes which created these monuments, to understand their role in the process and to gain insight into the forces and issues which impacted on the process. Since monuments and memorials to the Transatlantic Slave Trade are in public spaces, archival research was done to ascertain the level of public discourse generated by the memorialization process and how this discourse impacted the process. The case studies were chosen to allow for the comparison of the process of memorialization in different parts of the region which had different historical relationships with the Transatlantic Slave Trade. This allowed for analysis of memorialization within different political contexts. The first case study was Ghana an African nation with ports from which for enslaved Africans trafficked across the Atlantic. Saint Lucia is an English speaking, Eastern Caribbean island nation which received enslaved Africans during the period of the Transatlantic Slave Trade. Saint Lucia has a majority population that is descended from formerly enslaved Africans. The third case study is of the state of Louisiana in the United States of America which received large numbers of enslaved Africans whose descendants are a minority in the population. The comparison of these case studies illustrates how the memorialization process is directly impacted by the contemporary socio-political environment and the economics of each state. It also illustrates how the power of various stakeholders involved in the process creates silences and engenders forgetting, as various agendas are pursued.

As many in academia now argue, heritage significance is ascribed and not intrinsic to the asset in question. For designated sites in England, the significance ascribed by experts is that of ‘special interest’ in a national context with a resultant emphasis on, in the case of buildings, the more architecturally embellished examples. However, the majority of applications for statutory heritage designation are for everyday heritage assets which have significance to the local community. When assessed under the current criteria, many of these applications are turned down because the site is not thought to have enough special interest. There are therefore significant tensions between national, expert-assessed significance and locally ascribed social significance. There has been little academic investigation of this particular area of dissonant heritage. This thesis, therefore, investigates this tension and considers opportunities to reduce it through the use of Local Heritage Lists and Big Society agenda outcomes such as neighbourhood planning. It does this through the analysis of 500 applications for statutory designation; collation and analysis of Local Heritage List data; and evaluation and analysis of data in relation to Assets of Community Value and Neighbourhood Development Plans. Empirical data for each of these has not previously been analysed or published. Its collation and use in this thesis thus adds significantly to our knowledge and understanding of why local communities wish to ‘save’ their everyday heritage, and the methods with which to do so. In concluding, this thesis argues that a better understanding of the role and legacy of National significance in statutory designation, combined with making the most of opportunities at the local level, can help to reduce tension and better protect everyday heritage. This requires those in authority, however, to understand that heritage is not simply historic fabric; it is also a community asset.

The primary aim of this thesis is to contextualise the 19th century excavation of the Anglian cemetery at Uncleby, East Yorkshire by Canon William Greenwell. The site is important for our understanding of Anglo-Saxon England; it dates to the transition to Christianity, and it contains a number of unusual burial forms and grave goods, most famously a whetstone which has been compared to the example from Sutton Hoo. However, information about the discoveries was not made available until 1912, when R.A. Smith presented a paper to the Society of Antiquaries of London. To date this remains the most detailed account of the site, and the excavations have never been properly published. The remaining archive and the recovered objects from the excavation, most of which can be found in the Yorkshire Museum, have provided the basis of this research. By using the objects and contemporary sources, the findings of the excavation and relevant material are presented in detail for the first time, and a full artefact and grave catalogue has been produced, and a major new geophysical survey of the site has been conducted. The object catalogue and the survey have informed a new discussion of the site and its significance. Furthermore, this thesis highlights a neglected source of information in the archaeological record: antiquarian excavations. In the 19th century countless sites were excavated by amateur archaeologists and antiquarians, many of which have become lost in museum collections. By utilizing these sites and making the data available, researchers have access to new datasets that have the potential to provide new knowledge.

This thesis finalises a 5+3 PhD project within the joint doctoral programme in Digital Heritage established in collaboration between History, Archaeology and Classical Studies, Graduate School, the Faculty of Arts, Aarhus University and the University of York. The thesis deals with the overarching theme of spatial data in archaeological excavation recording. Spatial data are at the core of all archaeological observations, and are expressed in numerous ways, ranging from traditional hand drawings to digital two- and three-dimensional representations in Geographic Information Systems and proprietary 3D software. Yet, despite technological advances, state-of-the art digital spatial data are almost equally detached from textual archaeological interpretation as they were using conventional tools decades ago. The thesis presents a study of how technological advances influence archaeological excavation traditions and methodologies. Special emphasis is directed at exploring how the increased use of image-based 3D documentation may contribute to increased quality of field recording and, in particular, what theoretical conceptualisations and technical developments are needed to harness its full potential. The thesis is composed of four articles, which constitute individual chapters (2-5). Each chapter covers a theme within the underlying topic of integrating spatial data in archaeology, supplemented by an introductory chapter (1), a synthesis (6) and a conclusion (7). The first article (chapter 2) provides an introduction to the overarching research questions and their methodological and historical background. It offers some rudimentary impressions of differing excavation and recording traditions in Britain and Denmark, to critically assess the use of GIS in archaeology and the negotiation between state-of-the-art technology and archaeological practice. The article discusses how the adaptation of GIS may have contributed significantly to the detrimental effect of creating stand-alone silos of spatial data that are rarely fully integrated with non-spatial, textual data, and has acted to stifle the development of digital standards of recording by perpetuating outmoded analogue recording conventions from a previous century. The chapter outlines the potential of born-digital 3D recording technologies such as Structure From Motion (SFM), GPS, and laser scanning in current practice, while advocating for a conceptualisation of new types of data and data representation in archaeological documentation. This, however, requires changes in archaeological methodologies and workflows and that we redefine more explicitly what we actually want to do with spatial data in archaeology. The second article (chapter 3) seeks to advance the conceptual framework of 3D models within archaeological excavation recording. 3D documentation advocates for a new workflow with a more three-dimensional reasoning, allowing for the utilisation of 3D as a tool for continuous progress planning and evaluation of an excavation and its results. Just like the general use of models to form hypotheses, it is possible to use 3D models as spatial hypotheses of an ongoing excavation. This allows us to visually realise or spatially conceptualise our hypotheses as a virtual reconstruction and to combine it with our observational data. The article presents first-hand experiences of working with 3D reconstruction and visualisations during the excavations at Viking Age site Jelling, and explores how the concept of authenticity may facilitate negotiations between visualising what we know, and what we think we know. The third article (chapter 4) further addresses the challenges inherent to the integration of 3D documentation: specifically its inability to convey archaeological interpretations. Image-based 3D modelling is generally considered a superior tool for generating geometrically accurate and photo-realistic recording of an excavation, but does not immediately encourage reflexive or interpretative practice. This is a direct consequence of the technical limitations of currently available tools, but also reflects an archaeological methodology and spatial conceptualisation based on two-dimensional abstractions. Using the example of the excavations at the Iron Age site Alken Enge, this article takes a more technical approach to exploring how new tools developed for segmenting field-recorded 3D geometry allow embedding archaeological interpretations directly in the 3D model, thereby augmenting its semantic value considerably. This is considered a precondition for the successful integration of 3D models as archaeological documentation. Furthermore, the article explores how web-based 3D platforms may facilitate collaborative exchange of 3D excavation content and how the integration of spatial and attribute data into one common event-based data model may be advantageous. The event-based approach is used for conceptualising how digital spatial data are created, derived and evolve throughout the documentation and post-excavation process. This effectively means building a conceptualisation of excavation recording procedures and seeing them through to the data model implementation itself. The fourth and last article (chapter 5) further explores the technologies outlined in chapters two and four. In particular, it focuses on evaluating analytical capabilities and alternative visualisation end-goals for 3D excavation recording. The chapter presents a simple case study, demonstrating the pipeline from excavating an archaeological feature, through image-based documentation and processing, to volumetric visual representation, while exploring the potential of machine learning to aid in feature recognition and classification. Chapter six acts as a synopsis, which provides added context to the results of the preceding chapters and furthermore discusses archaeological data models in general, conceptual reference models and, finally, presents the data model and implementation developed during the research project. The research introduces several novel approaches and technical developments aimed at aggregating the fragmented excavation data throughout the archaeological sector. This includes developing software for harvesting 2D GIS data from file storage at local archaeological institutions, functions for 3D semantic segmentation, automated processes for pattern recognition (SVM), machine learning and volumetric visualisation, and database mappings to web-services such as the MUD excavation database - all of which feed into the development of the Archaeo Framework. The online database \url{www.archaeo.dk} provides an implementation of the proposed data model for complex spatial field recorded data, and demonstrates the achieved data management capabilities, analytical queries, various spatial and visual representations and data interoperability functions. The Archaeo Framework acts as a data repository for excavation data, and provides long-awaited integration of spatial and textual data in Denmark. The benefits of spatial integration are clearly evident, notably having all information in one system, available online for research, dissemination and data re-use. For the first time, it is possible to perform large-scale validation of digital excavation plans against the written record, and perform complex spatial queries at a much deeper level than merely a site on a map. This research frames the basis for further developments of dynamic data management approaches to the integration of complex spatial data in field archaeology. The data model is expected to assist archaeologists in implementing better conceptualised excavation data models, and to facilitate a better understanding and use of 3D for archaeological documentation and analysis. Ultimately, the implementation provides access to the inaccessible dimensions of archaeological recording by joining hitherto isolated and fragmentary archaeological datasets - spatial and textual. Future areas of investigation should seek to advance this further in order to facilitate the persistence of complex spatial data as integrated components of archaeological data models.