Marine crannogs are archaeological remains distributed around the Scottish coastline.T he two groupso f sites discussedin this thesisa re located in the intertidal zone of the upper reaches of the Firth of Clyde and the Beauly Firth. As a result of their wet surroundingst hey have beena ssociatedw ith freshwaterc rannogsa lthough little is known of their origins, function and structural design. Evidence from early investigations has indicated that substantial remains are preserved beneath the intertidal deposits. Intertidal fieldwork techniques have been developed in this thesis to enable these sites to be surveyed, investigated and to sample some of the archaeologya nd palacoenvironmentael videncep reservedo n them. Evidence from previous investigations of these sites is used to re-locate them and survey was undertaken to identify additional sites. The results from the surveys of the existing marine crannogs are used to indicate the variety of locations, types of remains and other characteristics of these sites. On the basis of these results, one site was chosen for additional research. Sampling and excavation on the focus site indicates primary and subsequent structural remains and particular sedimentary and artefactual characteristics. Some of the remains sampled are subjected to multispectral analysis, the results of which indicate that palaeoenvironmental indicators arc found in marine crannog deposits and can be used to establish conditions when the location was occupied and the site constructed. An example of the palaeoenvironmcntal indicators analysed was diatoms, which are helpful when investigating the position and salinity levels of contemporary water levels. Results from the surveys and sample analysis arc used to indicate that marine crannogs are a distinct sub-group of crannogs and that the two groups display a regional diversity of both structures and chronology. The identification of a distinct range of structures from Iron Age Scotland contributes to the diversity of sites from this period.

The scope of this survey was twofold: a) to locate and study sites reported to have antiquities and b) to investigate selected areas with intensive methods. The sites are described and interpreted in Chapter III. - Evidence from both the extensive and intensive part of the survey is combined to observe general trends in the distribution patterns from the Neolithic to the Roman period in the Conclusions. A greater emphasis is given to the prehistoric period, for which two main observations were made: a) the number of Neolithic sites recovered show that the North-West part of the island was already settled since the Late phase of this period and b) during the Bronze Age the small number of finds suggest that Andros followed the general developments in the Aegean, except for the Early Cycladic period which is not well represented. The limited number of ancient sources referring to Andros do not allow to reconstruct the ancient topography and history of the island in any detail. The effort to associate finds from the survey with historical developments had some success mainly for the Classical and Hellenistic period. It appears that the location of the port and the proximity of the North-West part of the island to the mainland was the main reason for the development of this region. Finds from the Roman period are more difficult to interpret since ancient sources are even more limited.

1bis thesis discusses the evidence for non-ferrous metalworking, particularly casting, during the Scottish Iron Age (arra 700BC to AD 800). The wider goal is to offer a fuller understanding of the role that the production of bronze, silver and gold objects played in Iron Age society. Following an outline of the theoretical and methodological framework adopted throughout the study the evidence for the different stages involved in non-ferrous metalworking is discussed. Detailed catalogues, descriptions and scientific analysis of the material and its context are given, together with discussion of typology, technology, provenance and chronology. The corpus is then reviewed within three case studies, chronologically divided into the Early, Middle, and Late Iron Age. The aim of each study is to analyse the role and meaning of non-ferrous working, the smiths and the objects in specific regions at different periods. In the process, metalworking is contextualised within wider themes and frameworks for Iron Age society. 1bis study suggests that non-ferrous metalworking was a fundamental concern to important individuals, a prized asset not open to all. The practice played a crucial role in the creation and maintenance of different social and political trajectories at various times and places throughout Iron Age Scotland.

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The topic was suggested by the discovery of the classical Uruk sites in the Meskene area, which seemed to reflect the unexpected phenomenon of the transfer of a fully fledged material culture in an area widely separated from those where the same culture formed and developed. Nothing of what was previously known made one suspect the possibility of such a phenomenon, although a classical Uruk phase or horizon was recognized in northern Mesopotamia, western Syria and the upper Euphrates basin both before and after the aforementioned discoveries. However, while the Meskene sites are new foundations, the ones in the last areas are mostly old mounds, which were inhabited before the appearance of the "Uruk" settlements. This paper is devoted to the study of a particular class of finds, namely pottery. The pottery yielded by the Meskene sites is presented first, that from the last mounds is described subsequently and includes all the IVth millennium B. C. material retrieved at the site itself. The pottery derived from the IVth millennium B. C. neighbouring sites is examined next. The Late Uruk horizon pottery assemblages of the northwestern regions consist of two main components, local ones dating to the formative Terminal Ubaid horizon, and new ones, which include what is called Uruk material in the literature. There are no obvious local antecedents for the Habuba Kabira South assemblage. In fact, in the north-western regions, new ceramic elements for which southern Mesopotamian affinities have been recognized appear in selected numbers at selected locations in the context of continuing older traditions of shaping, finishing and making pottery.

Variation in Greek figure-painted pottery has previously been unsystematically described as the result of social, political and art historical influences. In this study we propose that variation arises from the process of copying itself. The neutral model states that if there are no other forces at work, at time t the frequency of a variant in a population of variants will be in proportion to its frequency at time t-1, modified by the probability that new variants might be invented and old ones might fail to be copied each time there is a copying event, a process known as drift. We test the degree to which variation in figure- painted pottery can be explained by this model using evolutionary approaches to archaeology and culture change (Neiman 1995, Bentley et. al. 2004, Bentley et. al. 2007). We develop and expand these approaches through computer simulation. Using data from the Beazley archive, we created a new database containing a sample of 38,707 Attic figure-painted vases dating from 650 to 300 BC. Within this sample we explore the diversity, distribution and turnover rate of motifs over time, between shapes and across different decorative techniques. We also explore correlations between shape and motif, and examin the variant frequencies underlying the emergence of the red- figured technique. We show that much of the variation in motifs on figure-painted pottery can be explained as being the result of random copying. Where the neutral model is not sufficient as an explanation of observed variation, we show whether selection is due to bias towards novelty or conformity. These results show that an evolutionary approach to cultural change provides us with a powerful tool for assessing previous research and allows us to identify areas in which further research is required.

This thesis examines the development of bow-arrow technology in terms of modem evolutionary theory. Previous approaches that propose functional-adaptive technological trajectories are critiqued. Different theoretical approaches towards technology and associated units of analysis are examined. Behavioural ecology, evolutionary archaeology, and dual inheritance theory are shown to hold most promise for explaining trait-lineages in a given technological tradition. Previous approaches to bow-arrow technology are analysed, and an evolutionary archaeological methodology appropriate for examining lithic armatures is presented. Environment, historical contingency, selection, drift, population dynamics and social learning mechanisms are seen as key complex factors requiring case by case examination. An evolutionary case study with nine temporally, geographically, and culturally related stratigraphic phases containing a total of 3600 complete lithic armatures from the south Scandinavian middle Mesolithic (c. 6600-5400 BC) is presented. The phases are described in terms of associated fine-grained archaeological data and previous interpretations. A Bayesian chronological framework is constructed for the case study, using modelling facilities in the OxCal calibration package. This method time-steps and calculates relative occupation durations of point bearing phases in terms of available archaeological and radiometric data. The chronological model covers the culture-historical periods termed Blak, Kongemose and Early Ertebolle phases. The validity of previous typological interpretations of projectile point sequences is questioned in light of these results. The nine time-stepped lithic armature assemblages are then analysed to describe inter- and intra-site point trait variation. A linked series of descriptive and multivariate statistical techniques identify key morphological attributes that summarise trait variation within and between phases. Variation is graphically represented and related to different social learning populations, reduction strategies, and engineering constraints. A remarkably long-term homogenous pattern of complex projectile point manufacture is found for the Kongemose phases, compared to the temporally bracketing Blak and Ertebolle phases. Faunal, climatic, and population level factors are then modelled to account for variation and stability of the case study's armature traits. Faunal data from the Tagerup and Segebro sites, spanning the case study period, are examined for possible diet breadth changes, in relation to point-trait variation. No functional relationship is found between point-shape and potential target-prey. A population model is then constructed in OxCal using all published south Scandinavian radiometric data from the final Maglemose to the final Ertebolle cultural phases. A simple model of landmass reduction, forestation cover and mammalian population density levels demonstrates reduced land mass alone would not significantly affect human population levels - even with relatively high human population densities. Holocene 5180 and A14C data is used as a proxy for contemporaneous climatic fluctuations. These proxies are plotted and superimposed onto the population graph. A correlation between climate change, population fluctuation, and projectile point technology is found. As changes in point morphology and lithic reduction strategies coincide with apparent regional drops in population, drift processes may account for some variation in point-shape.

This thesis has involved the compilation of a catalogue of unpublished pre-Islamic sculptural material, comprising statues, statuettes, heads, reliefs and plaques bearing stylized human faces and inscriptions. The objects come mainly from three known archaeological site in the kingdom of Saudi Arabia (al-Ula, Fadak and Qaryat al-Fau), and other unknown sites situated within the South Western region of Arabia (ancient Yemen). The thesis contains maps, drawings and photographs. The catalogue first divides the objects according to their regions and sites, then sub-divides the objects from South Arabia into groups, types and sub-types. The classification has been done partly on a typological basis, and partly, upon a' combination of several outstanding aspects, such as method "of manufacture' and other technical considerations. A discussion of each individual object or classified object in the catalogue follows its description. In these discussions attempts are made to focus on many related aspects such as stylistic and comparative studies and function. An attempt is also made to trace the regional stylistic variation between the sculptures of Qaryat al-Fau and South Arabia. No publication has made any attempt to catalogue sculptures from these regions with respect to their stylistic variation. This thesis thus seeks to fill the needs for a scholarly cataloguing and discussion of this important class of art. Conclusions are drawn concerning the main reasons behind the uniformity and conformity of the conventional South Arabian statuary. This study also sheds new light on the sculptural styles to be found in the pre-Islamic Arabian peninsula.